. tantric buddhism in ming china 557
Ming grand councilor Zhang Juzheng that was dated on the eighth day
of the fourth month in the first year of the Wanli reign (1573).
Zhang Juzheng’s term in itself did not relegate Tibetan Buddhism to
heresy. Zhang only meant that Tibetan Buddhism was simply a branch
of orthodox Buddhism and different from Chinese Chan Buddhism.^22
However, lama jiao in Han Chinese discourse developed connota-
tions far beyond what Zhang had originally intended. The term lama
jiao represents the typical Chinese misunderstanding of Tibetan Bud-
dhism, i.e., that it is a type of sorcery with mysterious and immeasur-
able power.
During the Ming period the court was often worried about the
infiltration of Tibetan culture into China proper. Chinese people were
prohibited from learning Tibetan and practicing Tibetan Buddhism
in principle, and infractions carried heavy punishment.^23 Ming literati
accused Tibetan monks of “relying on the court’s policy of ‘accommo-
dating barbarians from afar’ and causing disturbance everywhere they
went”; such monks were guilty of “presenting skull bones and rosaries,
skeletons, and alms bowls, using these dirty things to gain the honor of
imperially bestowed rewards.” The magic power of Tibetan monks was
often questioned and ridiculed by Chinese literati. To present Tibetan
monks as magic monks was just another way to banish them to the
realm of mysticism and magic. As the whole court was fascinated
with the magic power that the fifth Karma pa demonstrated during
the purification ceremony held at the Linggu monastery in Nanjing,
Li Jiding , a Hanlin academician and imperial tutor-in-waiting
said privately, “If he [the Karma pa lama] has magic power, then he
should have command of Chinese. Why is it that he needs interpreters
for understanding? Also, his chanting [of Six Syllables] O ma ni pad
ma hūm, in fact means ‘Let me trick you.’ People just do not know
that.” Those who were wise admired Li’s opinion.^24
Ming literati often equated Tibetan Buddhism with “the secret teach-
ing of supreme bliss” that was spread in the Yuan palace and saw it as
sorcery which mislead the emperors. They interpreted Ming emper-
ors’ interest in Tibetan Buddhism as indulgence in licentious pleasure.
However, they knew little about the secret teaching. The erotic novel
(^22) Ying and Zhu 1968, juan 6, 8a–b.
(^23) Yu 1981, 235.
(^24) Fu 1964–1966, juan 160, 3154.