. early esoteric buddhism in korea 579
Sŏngdŏk (r. 702–737). For this ritual, the Renwang jing^9 is said
to have been employed. This may be yet another example of Esoteric
Buddhism functioning as protector of the kingdom (hoguk pulgyo
),^10 but as this piece of information is also based on the SGYS,
we should be wary to accept it as historical fact. While rituals of this
type were very frequent during the Koryŏ, it is not possible to verify
its performance under the Silla.^11
Traces of Early Esoteric Buddhism on the Korean Peninsula
As to when Esoteric Buddhism, or rather Esoteric practices, were first
introduced to Korea, we can only speculate. Buddhism is traditionally
thought to have entered Korea in 372 C.E., and although this figure
may or may not be historically precise, in any case Buddhism was
present on the Korean Peninsula by the end of the fourth century at
the very latest.^12 It is common knowledge that many canonical sūtras
of the Mahāyāna persuasion,^13 including of course those belonging to
(^9) T. 245. This is an apocryphal scripture produced in China during the late fifth
century. For a detailed discussion of its history and doctrinal contents, see Orzech
1998, 69–97. 10
A discussion of the many theories and views concerning Korean Buddhism as
characterized by the concept of hoguk pulgyo are far beyond the scope of this pre-
sentation. For the sake of clarification my view is that within a short period after its
arrival on the Korean Peninsula, Buddhism was indeed used to bolster the secular and
spiritual authority of the monarchs of the Three Kingdoms, in particular those of the
Paekche and the Silla. Moreover, Buddhist monks were from early on called upon to
pray for the divine protection of the kingdoms in times of danger. As time wore on
Buddhism became increasingly connected with the fortunes of the successive dynas-
ties, and thereby unavoidably came to serve as the promoter and legitimizer of the
kingdom—hence the phrase “Buddhism as protector of the kingdom.” In more recent
times the concept of hoguk pulgyo was appropriated and misused by the militarist
regimes of the post-war period as a means to coerce the Korean Buddhist community
into submission and collaboration. See Sørensen 2004b and Sørensen 1999a. 11
Another source on the Three Kingdoms, namely the important Samguk sagi
(Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms), compiled by the Koryŏ litera-
tus Kim Pusik (1075–1151), mentions that Renwang rituals were performed
as early as 551 C.E. under the Old Silla (cf. Chōsen shigaku kai 1928–1944, 445).
Provided this information can be trusted, it would mean that the Renwang jing was
available in Silla less than three decades after Buddhism was officially accepted in that
kingdom and promoted at the royal court in Kyŏngju. For the late-fifth-century dat-
ing of the Renwang jing, and the socio-religious context in which it was produced, see
Orzech 1998, 74–79, 116–121. 12
For a useful discussion of the introduction of Buddhism in Korea, see Tamura
- 13
This includes such sūtras as the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka sūtra (T. 262 and 263),
the Laṅkāvatāra sūtra (T. 670 and 671), and the Suvarṇaprabhāsa sūtra (T. 663 and
664).