. early esoteric buddhism in korea 581
seventh to eighth centuries.^17 Despite the material evidence for the
prevalence of Esoteric Buddhist practices or rituals in Silla before the
unification in conjunction with the Bhaiṣajyaguru sūtra and the spirits
of the zodiac, we still do not know how widespread they were, how they
were performed, or how they related to the rest of Korean Buddhism.
However, we may surmise, on the basis of the general indications as
provided by the extant material, that Esoteric Buddhist practices and
beliefs were not seen as something different or distinct from main-
stream Buddhism at that time.
Textual Evidence for Early Esoteric Buddhist Practice in Silla
A number of Korean commentaries on important Buddhist scrip-
tures were written during the second half of the seventh century, and
among them three stand out as evidence of the presence of the grow-
ing interest in Esoteric Buddhist practices. The commentaries in ques-
tion include the Inwang kyŏngsŏ (Commentary on the Sūtra
of Benevolent Kings; cf. HPC vol. 1, 15b–123c) written by Wŏnch’uk
(613–696), a Korean disciple of the famous Chinese pilgrim and
translator-monk Xuanzang (602–664).^18 Although the apocryphal
scripture for which Wŏnch’uk’s commentary was written is not an
Esoteric Buddhist scripture per se, the commentary itself is interesting
for anticipating some of the ritual elements that were later developed
in Amoghavajra’s extended version of the text.^19
Then there is the Taesŏng taechip Chijang sip non kyŏngsŏ
(Preface to the Daśacakra-ks itigarbha Sūtra)̣^20 by Sin-
bang (fl. seventh century),^21 which was written for an important
(^17) See Chang 1987, 170–194. See also Hwang 1979. This report deals with the dis-
covery of what is believed to be a Silla relief of one of the spirit generals of the Ren-
wang jing 18 carved on a stone slab.
Although Xuanzang does not appear to have been especially interested in Esoteric
Buddhism, he is nevertheless known to have translated a number of sūtras in which
Esoteric Buddhist practices and rites are major features. Cf. the Amoghapāśahṛdaya
(T. 1094), Avalokiteśvara-ekādaśamukha (T. 1071), Zhou wushou (Spells under
Five Headings; T. 1034), Dhvajāgra-keyūrā-dhāraṇī sūtra (T. 1363), Buddhahṛdaya-
dhāran 19 ̣ī (T. 918), etc.
It was first with Amoghavajra’s extended and revised version of the Renwang jing
that it became a truly Esoteric Buddhist scripture. See Orzech (1998, 169–206). 20
HPC vol. 1, 479ac. The ten-chapter Daśacakra-kṣitigarbha sūtra is another of
the translations by Xuanzang of an Indian Buddhist text in which Esoteric Buddhist
practices have a certain prominence.
(^21) Cf. Han’guk pulgyo inmyŏng sajon (hereafter; HPIS) 167a.