. early esoteric buddhism in korea 585
attracted to mantras and spells; (4) he took a special interest in the
Amoghapāśakalparāja; and (5) he was associated with Li Wuchan
and Polun, both of whom are known to have translated Esoteric Bud-
dhist scriptures. Although the text does not mention it, we can only
speculate as to the possibility of Myŏnghyo having eventually returned
to Silla in order to spread the Esoteric Buddhist teachings of the
Amoghapāśakalparāja.
As regards the cult of Amoghapāśa in early Unified Silla we have
unfortunately no extant images with which to establish it as a his-
torical reality. However, we do know that the cult of another of
Avalokiteśvara’s transformations, namely that of Ekādaśamukha, the
eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara, was thriving in Silla during the middle
of the eighth century. Among the carved reliefs at Sŏkkuram
in the mountains beyond Pulguk Temple , we find a well-
sculpted image of Ekādaśamukha, in effect the only bona fide Esoteric
Buddhist image to be seen in this famous sanctuary. As the introduc-
tion and popular rise of the cults of Ekādaśamukha and Amoghapāśa
in China took place more or less contemporaneously during the late
seventh century, it is not unlikely that they were also introduced to the
Korean Peninsula more or less simultaneously. Given that we do not
know if Myŏnghyo ever returned to Silla, we cannot say for certain
whether the cult of Amoghapāśa actually did take hold in Korea dur-
ing his own lifetime, the early eighth century. However, the chances
that it did are certainly there.
On the Transmission of Zhenyan Buddhism to Korea
As has been shown in the preceding chapters on Esoteric Buddhism
in China, a more systematic and orthodox form came into being in
Tang China during the first half of the eighth century. The arrival in
718 C.E. of the ācārya Śubhākarasiṃha (637–735), followed by Vajra-
bodhi (669–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774), signals the beginning of
a truly systematic and well-defined type of Esoteric Buddhism. Monks
from Silla eventually became interested in the “new” brand of Eso-
teric Buddhism and gathered in Ch’angan to study under the Indian
ācāryas and their Chinese disciples.
One of the most important sources on the Silla monks who took
up the study of Esoteric Buddhism in Tang China is the Liangbu
dafa xiangcheng shizi fufa ji (Record of
Successive Masters Transmitting the Methods of the Great Dharma