Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia

57. ESOTERIC BUDDHISM UNDER THE KORYŎ 9181392

Henrik H. Sørensen

Introduction

Although part and parcel of the greater East Asian Buddhist tradi-
tion, the forms of Buddhism that evolved on the Korean Peninsula
reveal certain characteristics that are in a number of ways different,
if not unique, from the Buddhist developments in both China and
Japan. These differences, or rather local characteristics, were caused by
a wide range of factors such as past history (in particular the ancient,
tripartite division of the peninsula), overall geo-political issues such as
Korea’s role as a “transit culture” between China and Japan, geogra-
phy, clan divisions and social ranking, local power structures, and most
importantly a marked tendency to adopt, transform, and integrate new
cultural imports from abroad, including religious and philosophical
influences. These characteristics are especially pronounced during the
Koryŏ dynasty (918–1392), a period in which Buddhism enjoyed an
unprecedented influence and popularity in all walks of life in Korean
society. The Koryŏ was also a time when developments inside Bud-
dhism itself contributed to new developments in literature, religious
practice, and various fields of science and the arts.^1
Koryŏ Buddhism was divided into a number of major schools or
denominations, including the Chaŭn , the Hwaŏm , the Sŏn
, and the Ch’ŏnt’ae. In addition to these formally established
schools there were several minor denominations, such as the Nam-
san , the Sihŭng , and the Chungdo.^2 The two

(^1) The best overall treatment of Koryŏ Buddhism is still Hŏ 1986.
(^2) For a survey of these lesser Buddhist schools, see Sŏ 1993, 251–297. Although a
very visible component of Koryŏ Buddhism, the Pure Land (Chŏngt’o ) tradi-
tion does not appear to have existed as an independent sectarian organization dur-
ing the Koryŏ. Related practices were mainly carried out within the Ch’ŏnt’ae and,
paradoxically enough, the Sŏn schools Sŏ 1985, 143–179; Kwŏn 1985, 117–142. The
great importance of Pure Land Buddhism during the Koryŏ can be testified to in the
surviving Buddhist art from the period. Significantly, more than half of the surviv-
ing votive paintings can be directly associated with Pure Land beliefs and rituals. See
Yamato 1978, pls. 1–2, 6–22.