. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 601
Ch’ŏngji school (the name of which is indicated in the title of the
book), although his true sectarian affiliation seems to have been with
the Chaŭn school (see Sørensen 2005, 49–84). It is known that
both the Sinin and the Ch’ŏngji still existed during late Koryŏ and
early Chosŏn period, and in 1407 C.E. they were absorbed into the
reformed denominations of Sŏn and doctrinal Buddhism.^16
However, there is very little concrete, textual, and/or physical evidence
to be had regarding their place in Korea’s Buddhist history. This is
somewhat peculiar in light of the otherwise rich sources and physical
material standing as testimony to the greatness of the other aspects of
Koryŏ Buddhism.^17
Tibetan Buddhist lineages were introduced to the Korean Penin-
sula shortly after the Koryŏ court returned to Kaesŏng from its self-
imposed exile on Kanghwa Island in 1270 C.E. From that time onwards
a cordial relationship existed between the Mongol powers in Dadu
(Beijing) and the Korean royalty, resulting among other things
in intermarriage between the Mongol imperial family and members
of the Koryŏ royalty (see Puggioni 2004). As a common denominator
Buddhism was an obvious choice as conveyor of spirituality, politi-
cal alliances, and shared aspects of cultural development for both the
Mongols and the Koreans. Tibetan Buddhism was therefore used by
the Mongol side to enhance the intercultural relationship between
Yuan and Koryŏ. In this new era a harmonious relationship developed
between the Korean nobility and their Mongol overlords.
Tibetan and Tangut Buddhism as represented by the bKa’-brgyud-pa
and later Sa-skya-pa schools had been influential at the Mongol court
in Dadu since the middle of the thirteenth century, and in 1271 C.E.
the first lamas arrived in Kaesŏng as part of the diplomatic exchange
of religious personnel (KS ch. 27, 548b). Since the lamas enjoyed a
high degree of respect in Yuan China, they were at first treated with
the utmost reverence and respect by the Koreans. However, as time
passed and more lamas arrived in Koryŏ, it gradually dawned on the
Koreans that the tantric brand of Buddhism the lamas brought with
(^16) T’aejong sillŏk , ch. 28 (T’aejong fourteenth year). See also Sejong sillŏk
, ch. 24 (Sejong sixth year). For further information on the merger of the
Buddhist denominations during the early Chosŏn dynasty, cf. Hŏ 1986, 522–35.
(^17) In this respect it is especially noticeable that there remain no identified stele
inscriptions for any of the native Esoteric Buddhist ācārya, who were supposedly both
prominent and influential.