. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 607
Rites performed to prevent natural catastrophes such as flooding or
drought were also common. Usually rain–making (or rain–stopping)
rituals were directed towards the dragon kings. These beings were con-
ceived of as dwelling in the ocean, lakes, and rivers of the realm, and
were held to be in charge of the natural forces that depended upon
water as their main ingredient. There are several Esoteric Buddhist
rituals for rain–making in the Sino-Korean Buddhist canon, but it is
uncertain which ritual the Korean court Buddhists employed.^34
In addition to the more commonly held rituals, there were several
other types that were performed less frequently, at least in connection
with the royal palace. Among these was the worship of the thousand-
armed, thousand-eyed Avalokiteśvara.^35 Rituals of this type were most
likely based on the Nīlakaṇṭhaka sūtra (T. 1060) and its ritual com-
pendia. There were also rituals dedicated to the Four Heavenly Kings
(KS I, ch. 22, 444b) and to the vidyārājas Yamāntaka (KS I, ch. 23,
471b), Aparājitā, and so on.^36 Especially the latter two of these protec-
tors were popular during the first half of the thirteenth century, as
indicated by the many entries in the KS.
The popularity of the Buddhoṣṇīsa-dhāraṇ ̣ī during the Koryŏ has
been referred to above, and it is not surprising that we also find it
prominently represented among the Buddhist rituals held at the royal
palace. Again, the KS provides no details on the actual performance
of the ritual but limits itself to information on when and where it was
held.^37
The Influence of Esoteric Buddhism on other Koryŏ Buddhist Schools
In addition to the declared schools of Esoteric Buddhism, the Sinin
and the Ch’ŏngji that were active under the Koryŏ, Esoteric Buddhist
practices appear to have been widely used by the other denomina-
tions of Buddhism as well (cf. Sŏ 1993, 251–297). It has already been
mentioned that the compiler of the Pŏmsŏ ch’ŏngji chip was a monk
(^34) The KS records one such dragon king ritual that is said to have lasted for seven
days (cf. KS I, ch. 17, 360b). It also refers to a “five hundred arhat feast” in connection
with a prayer for rain held in Poje Temple (KS I, ch. 17, 360b).
(^35) One such formal ritual by King Kongmin (1351–1374) is recorded as having
taken place in the Inhui Hall of the royal palace (cf. KS III, ch. 2, 34b).
(^36) KS I, ch. 21, 429a (Sinjong 6); KS I, ch. 22, 442a, 442b, and 444a. Kojong 4 (1217
C.E.), Kojong 14, 2 rituals in the ninth and tenth months; KS I, ch. 22, 453a.
(^37) One such ritual is recorded as having lasted five full days (cf. KS I, ch. 17,
345b).