. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 609
formed part and parcel of Ch’ŏnt’ae practices, at least after the middle
of the Koryŏ.
When turning to Sŏn Buddhism, the case is slightly different. If we
set aside the cult of Tosŏn that gained popularity during the early
part of the Koryŏ (cf. Sŏ 1993, 32–67), there is no strong evidence
for the influence of Esoteric Buddhism on the Sŏn tradition during
the first century of the dynasty. Actually it is not until the end of the
Koryŏ when we find more solid traces of this influence. Sŏn Bud-
dhism of the late Koryŏ was dominated by monks such as T’aego Poŭ
(1301–1382), Naong Hyegŭn (1320–1376), and
Paekun Kyŏnghan (1299–1374), all of whom transmitted
some form of orthodox Linji Chan (Imje Sŏn), which they
had imported from Yuan China during the first half of the fourteenth
century.^41 In China there had been very little if no connection between
that school of Chan and Esoteric Buddhism; however, in Korea the
development took a somewhat different turn. While there is no (or
very little) evidence of Esoteric Buddhist influence in the writings of
both T’aego nor Paekun, in the case of Naong a few minor pieces can
be found among his writings, which indicate an interest in Esoteric
Buddhism as well as a relatively high degree of proficiency in its related
ritual practices.^42 It would appear that Naong’s acquaintance with the
Indian monk Dhyānabhadra (1236–1363)^43 was a major inspiration
for him and stimulated his interest in Esoteric Buddhism and rituals
(cf. Sŏ 1984, 299–347).^44
(^41) For a study of this phase in the history of Korean Sŏn Buddhism, cf. Sŏ 1984,
201–244; see also Han 1991, 434–504.
(^42) HPC vol. 6, 717c–718b. There exist two other short pieces by Naong on the six
gāti (HPC vol. 6, 719a–720a and 720c–721a; see also Kim Hyŏt’an 1999). It is known
that Naong wrote a few addresses to Esoteric Buddhist rituals of the suryuk che
type (water and land ritual ), which are performed in order to seek the liberation
of the ghosts of the dead that have not been able to be reborn. Rituals of this type
require a complex procedure in which altars, mantras, invocations, and offerings are
extensively used. For a highly useful discussion of the shuilu ritual in Chinese Bud-
dhism, see Stevenson 2001.
(^43) For a complete study of Dhyānabhadra and his relationship with Koryŏ Bud-
dhism, see Hŏ 1997.
(^44) This is according to Dhyānabhadra’s stele inscription, the Sŏch’ŏn Chenambakt’a
chonja pudo myŏng (Pudo Inscription of the Indian Ven.
Dhyānabhadra). Cf. CKS vol. 2, 1283–1289; and T. 2089 (4).51:982c–985c. This inscrip-
tion is composed so as to emulate an autobiography. Here we learn that Dhyānabhadra
was well versed in the vinaya, the teachings of prajñā (Mādhyamika philosophy), and
that he mastered the whole range of Esoteric Buddhist teachings including the various
dhāraṇīs (T. 2089.51: 983a–984b). However, he was clearly opposed to the practice