. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 611
the pokchang. In contrast to this situation we find that by the middle
Chosŏn a clear-cut and fairly uniform method of empowering Bud-
dhist images had become the norm through the use of the important
Chosang kyŏng (Scripture on Image Making; hereafter CSK).^48
While this main textual authority on empowerment practices under
the Chosŏn cannot be taken as evidence for Buddhist practices under
the Koryŏ (or at least it can be taken only as indirect evidence), its
contents nevertheless reflects on Esoteric Buddhist beliefs and ritual
practices in vogue during the later part of that period. This is most
evident in the embedded and co-opted textual passages from Esoteric
Buddhist scriptures popular during the Koryŏ, including works such as
the Cundīdevī-dhāraṇī sūtra,^49 the Sarvatathāgatādhisṭ̣hāna-hṛdaya–
guhyadhātu–karaṇḍa–mudrā-dhāraṇī,^50 the Fomu boruo boluo-
miduo daming guanxiang yigui
(Ritual Proceedings of Contemplating the Great Splendor of Buddha-
Mother Prajñāpāramitā),^51 the Mahāvairocana sūtra,^52 and so on.
Hence, the CSK reveals that most of the material forming its core
is based on practices and beliefs current in Korean Buddhism prior
to the Chosŏn. Nevertheless, the kind of standardization of which
the CSK is excellent proof is a relatively late phenomenon that was
surely not applied during the Koryŏ. As stated previously, the CSK
can only be taken as indicative, and not as representative, of the use
of mandalas and dhāraṇīs in the creation of pokchang for Buddhist
images during the Koryŏ. This is clear from a number of reports on
the analysis of the contents and composition of pokchang taken from
a number of images that were empowered during the late Koryŏ. This
material shows on the one hand less systematization and standardiza-
tion than the information we have on the creation of pokchang from
the CSK (and as documented in Chosŏn Buddhist material ), while on
the other hand it appears to be closer to the Esoteric Buddhist tradi-
tion from Song China than the data we encounter in the latter text
(^48) Despite its title this is not a proper sūtra, but a composite work including tex-
tual elements from both Esoteric Buddhism as well as the mainstream exoteric tradi-
tion. Two editions are presently available, a reprint of the 1824 edition from Yuch’ŏm
Temple (Poryon’gak ed.), and a modern, bilingual edition in both Hanmun
and Chinese, the 49 Che pul posal pokchang tan ŭisik (1992).
See T. 1076. The corresponding passage is in the CSK 40a–43a.
(^50) T. 1022ab. The passage is in CSK 46b–48b.
(^51) T. 1152. The passage is in CSK 43b–46b.
(^52) T. 848. The passage is in CSK 49a–50a.