. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 613
of the yab-yum variety, such as Hevajra or Cakrasaṃvara, have so far
been found.
Extant Esoteric Buddhist paintings from the Koryŏ are even less
in evidence than surviving examples of sculptural art. Out of more
than one hundred documented Buddhist paintings, including records
of those that no longer exist, only one single work belongs to Eso-
teric Buddhism, namely, a painting of the goddess of war, Mārīcī.^55
Records of paintings that are no longer extant mention Esoteric
Buddhist divinities such as the thousand-armed Avalokiteśvara and
Ekādaśamukha (the eleven-headed Avalokiteśvara), but little else (see
Chin 1992, 341–342).
In contrast to the lack of sculptures and paintings, quite a num-
ber of ritual implements reflecting Esoteric Buddhist iconography and
practices have survived. This material includes reliquaries (Chin 1997,
595–649), hand bells (ghaṇtạ̄) and vajras (Koryŏ mal Chosŏn cho ŭi
misul 1996, pls. 69, 70), chimes, gongs (Koryŏ mal Chosŏn cho ŭi misul
1996, pls. 67, 68), and incense burners.^56 Bells and vajras are of course
some of the most common ritual implements used in Esoteric Bud-
dhism.
In light of the fact that rituals related to Esoteric Buddhist beliefs
and practices were central to court Buddhism in the capital Kaegyŏng
(Kaesŏng) during most of the Koryŏ, it is difficult to come to terms
with the acute lack of extant examples of related objects of art. Is it
likely that Esoteric Buddhist art originally existed inside the sanctu-
aries of the royal palace as well as in the large Buddhist monaster-
ies around the country, but that warfare and historical decay are to
blame for its almost total disappearance? Such an understanding of
the problem is of course plausible were it not for the fact that many
other pieces of “high class” Buddhist art from the period in question
have indeed survived. It is rather unlikely that only Esoteric Buddhist
art should have disappeared while that of the exoteric Buddhist tradi-
tions, such as that of the Pure Land or Hwaŏm, are still extant in a
relatively great number.
A more logical way of explaining the “missing” Esoteric Buddhist
art is to consider the possibility that Esoteric Buddhist rituals may
(^55) Now in the collection of the Shōtaku-in in Kyōto. See Yi 1974, 100–106. See also
Yamato 1978, 71, pl. 16. 56
For examples, see Koryŏ mal Chosŏn cho ŭi misul 1996, pls. 64–66. These incense
burners are usually decorated with seed-syllables (bīja) written in Siddham script,
either as mantras or as representing Esoteric Buddhist divinities.