. esoteric buddhism under the kory (–) 615
all public Buddhist rituals were either full-fledged Esoteric Buddhist
rituals or at the very least contained parts that were so. The royal cult
would appear to have been partly upheld through the performance
of Esoteric Buddhist rituals. In particular the concept of “Buddhism
as protector of the kingdom” was a dominant feature throughout the
dynasty.
Esoteric Buddhism influenced Koryŏ Buddhism as a whole, and its
ideas and beliefs would appear to have shaped Buddhist ritual through-
out the dynasty and beyond. Although we cannot say so for certain, it
would appear that Esoteric Buddhism was most prominent during the
middle and second half of the dynasty.
Practices of empowerment were widespread in Koryŏ Buddhism
and were used for the creation of Buddhist images, reliquaries, and
stūpas. It is evident that these practices were in large measure based on
instructions coming from Esoteric Buddhist scriptures, and it would
appear that translations ascribed to the three ācāryas from Tang China
formed the core of these sources.
Surviving examples of Esoteric Buddhist art from the Koryŏ are
few in number and may be taken as a sign that the Koreans never
developed the same rich and complex iconography that characterizes
Shingon Buddhism in Japan. It would appear that the reason for this
was that the Koreans never received a full transmission of Esoteric
Buddhist lore. It is likely that much of their Esoteric Buddhist rituals
and associated paraphernalia were created locally on the basis of Bud-
dhist scriptures imported from Song China and probably also the Liao.
Nevertheless, the use of Siddha was widely practiced by the Koryŏ
Buddhists, and graphic mandalas and dhāraṇīs have been documented
in great numbers.