. esoteric buddhism under the chosn 617
It was mainly in the second half of the fifteenth century, especially
during the tyrannical reigns of Sŏngjong (r. 1469–1494), Yŏnsan’gun
(r. 1494–1506), and Chungjong (r. 1506–1544), that the social stand-
ing of Buddhism, including its ability to influence the higher strata
of Chosŏn society, was effectively broken.^3 Later, many of the restric-
tions placed on Buddhism by the Confucian bureaucracy, although
they nominally remained in effect, were in practice relaxed and rarely
upheld.
As the dominant and culturally most influential of all the various
forms of Korean Buddhism during the Chosŏn, the Sŏn tradi-
tion has tended to overshadow the other Buddhist traditions, even to
the point of being identified with Korean Buddhism as such. This is
of course an incorrect view of the actual situation, but it cannot be
denied that Sŏn Buddhism was by far the most vital and influential
Buddhist tradition throughout the Chosŏn dynasty. However, it is also
clear that Korean Sŏn during this period, in particular after 1500 C.E.,
was neither exclusivist and purist in orientation nor particularly bur-
dened by concerns of orthodoxy (see Sørensen 1993a, 521–546). From
this perspective Chosŏn Sŏn was relatively ecumenical in its orien-
tation towards other forms of Buddhist practices and beliefs, and as
such much closer to Chan Buddhism of the Ming than to the Rinzai
and Sōtō schools of Japanese Zen, which are known for
upholding strict orthodoxy and sectarian purity (even though these
were, and still are, more questions of outward formality than actual
reality). Both Pure Land beliefs and practices as well as Ch’ŏnt’ae
and Hwaŏm doctrine were integrated parts of Chosŏn Sŏn.
Likewise, Esoteric Buddhist lore continued to play an important role
in Sŏn temples, especially in the performance of many rituals. Hence,
the tendency towards syncretism between dominant lineages of Sŏn
and the various traditions of doctrinal Buddhism (Kyo ), including
their doctrines and practices, was a primary characteristic of Chosŏn
Buddhism. Furthermore, we also find evidence in the Buddhist litera-
ture from this period of a considerable interest in harmonization with
Confucianism and the classical Daoist philosophy of the Lao-Zhuang
variety.^4
(^3) A highly useful survey of this situation is given in Han 1993, 273–363. See also Yi
Pongch’un 1992, 355–376. See also the excellent study by Han 2000. 4
See the anonymous and appologetic Yŭsŏk ch’ilwi non (Treatise
on the Clarification of Doubts on Confucianism and Buddhism) in Hanguk pulgyŏ