. esoteric buddhism under the chosn 619
In terms of Chosŏn Buddhist culture, its literature, art, and archi-
tecture are extremely rich with a deeply rooted and multi-faceted
tradition. Especially in the field of literature Buddhism was highly
prolific during this period and shows a far greater compatibility with
secular learning and lore than would seem to have been the case dur-
ing the preceding Koryŏ dynasty when Buddhism dominated the intel-
lectual and spiritual arena. It cannot be denied that Chosŏn Buddhism
was considerably humbler than that of the Koryŏ in terms of diversity
of practices, hermeneutics, philosophy, cultural developments, politi-
cal power, and economic strength, but that it was much more than a
degenerated and declining religion is abundantly clear from the rich
and diverse materials still available to us today.
Although there has been some debate recently as regards the posi-
tion of Esoteric Buddhism as a separate or distinct form of Mahāyāna,
it is clear from the Korean sources from the Chosŏn period that
Esoteric Buddhism, or milgyo , was indeed considered as such.
Evidence from 1423 C.E., the fifth year in the reign of King Sejong
(r. 1419–1450), mentions that the entire collection of Esoteric Buddhist
scriptures from the canon were carved and printed together with the
Avataṃsaka sūtra (Kwŏn 1988, 1:297–304, 342). Later during the same
reign there is a reference to the carving and printing of the “Esoteric Bud-
dhist Mahāprajñā sūtra [otherwise unidentified]” (Kwŏn 1988, 1:312,
kw. 2). Again the Sejong sillŏk (Veritable Records of the
Reign of Sejong) provides information to the effect that “the wooden
blocks containing the Esoteric Buddhist scriptures of the Tripitakạ
written in Siddham were printed and compiled into one section”
(Kwŏn 1988, 300, kw. 2). These references indicate beyond any trace
of doubt that Esoteric Buddhism was understood as a distinct form of
Buddhism with its own set of scriptures.
Esoteric Buddhist Literature
The Esoteric Buddhist literature of the Chosŏn can be divided into
four kinds: canonical Buddhist texts, doctrinal tracts and other writing
composed by Chosŏn monks, spell collections and manuals, and ritual
texts and manuals. As far as we can tell, the canonical texts, consist-
ing of the major Mahāyāna texts and a number of later tantric works,
were inherited intact from Koryŏ Buddhism without any significant
losses in the transmission. This material constituted the link with the
earlier Korean Buddhist traditions, as well as with that of China. In