. esoteric buddhism under the chosn 621
down to the smaller details. This rich textual material, which consists
mainly of ritual manuals and handbooks, provides us with an insight
into a highly diverse world of ceremony and liturgy in which Esoteric
Buddhism and its arcana played a central part. Not only were many
standard Chinese Buddhist works on ritual practices printed in sev-
eral editions down through the centuries, but many new and original
Korean compositions and compilations were produced as well. In fact,
the local texts appear to have been the most important, at least after
the middle of the Chosŏn dynasty. The great diversity of the extant rit-
ual works at our disposal reflects both regional as well as local sectar-
ian developments. Moreover, they also demonstrate the important role
rituals played in the overall structure of Buddhism under the Chosŏn.^8
There are essentially two kinds of ritual manuals: (1) those devoted
to a specific ritual and (2) more general ones that include texts for
several rituals. The suryuk texts are examples of the former, while the
Ǒ tae chinŏn chip is an example of the latter type. Some scholars have
seen this proliferation of rituals as a form of decadence influenced by
folk religion. However, such an interpretation is based on a biased
and superficial view of Buddhist doctrine and practices, and does not
appreciate the historical development of the religion in Korea.
In the course of the fifteenth century the first compendia or rit-
ual manuals were compiled and many soon followed. These manuals
reflect a growing uniformity and standardization of Buddhist rituals,
something that is particularly obvious toward the end of the dynasty.
At the same time, the ritual manuals also show an increasing trend
towards indigenization, a process that allowed for more Korean cul-
tural forms to be introduced into the ritual procedures at the expense
of traditional Chinese Buddhist practices and beliefs. This trend is
both evident in the manner in which originally Chinese Buddhist
rituals were modified and re-arranged as well as in the development
of original Korean ritual forms and types. As an example of the for-
mer kind we may refer to the abbreviated suryuk type of rituals as
reflected in the Ch’ŏnji myŏngyang suryuk chammun
(^8) For a descriptive list of the Buddhist manuals and ritual texts from the Chosŏn
period, see Sørensen 1991–1992a. This survey is now a bit outdated as well as incom-
plete. For a more recent Korean study, see Nam 2004. The many tables contained here
are very useful. Moreover, this study adds new information on material related to
Esoteric Buddhism. An important collection of ritual texts from the Chosŏn period is
the Han’guk pulgyo ŭiri charyo ch’ongsŏ (Collection of Books and Materials on Korean
Buddhist Rituals) Pak 1993.