778 james l. ford
Shingon sect but also acknowledged within Tendai as well. By means
of this taxonomy, which appears often in contemporary scholarship,
Ōmura was apparently trying to purify mikkyō of its “magical” and
“superstitious” elements, relegating such elements to zōmitsu. Ōmura
identified four features of “pure” mikkyō:
- Centered on practices utilizing mudrās, mantras, and mandalas
- Aimed at enlightenment in this lifetime
- Based on sūtras taught by dharmakāya or Dainichi Nyōrai
- Emphasis on the Mahāvairocana sūtra and the Vajraśekhara
sūtra (Abé 2004, 107–108).
Ōmura’s taxonomy acknowledges the presence of esotericism in Nara-
era Buddhism, a fact that has been further borne out in closer studies
of the period. For example, various diary entries corroborate that eso-
teric rituals were being conducted quite frequently from the middle of
the Nara period onward (Abé 2004, 108). Tōdaiji sponsored ritual cer-
emonies (danhō ) comprised of dhāran ̣ī recitation, contemplation
of an “esoteric” central image (honzon ), and memorial services
to the dead (kuyō). From the time of Dōkyō (?–772), there are records
of various esoteric sūtras being copied at Tōdaiji, including the Sūtra
of the Great Peahen, Queen of Mantras (Kujaku myōō kyō
), the Dhāran ̣ī Collection Scripture (Darani jikkyō ), and
the Essential Incantation of the Eleven-Faced One (Jūichimen shinju
shinkyō ). Based on this, we know that there was
dhāraṇī study, hōe performances, and veneration of esoteric images
including Mahāmayūrī,^2 Batō Kannon (horse-headed), Fukū Kenjaku
Kannon (Amoghapāśa), and so forth. This was also the case at Said-
aiji (Abé 2004, 111). Even Dōkyō (700–772) was trained at Tōdaiji in
dhāraṇī recitation accompanied by contemplative practices and most
probably mudrās.
We find another revealing source for understanding the esoteric
features of practice and training within the Nara establishment in
the endorsement letters (ubasoku kōshinge ) written by
masters on behalf of their disciples seeking state-sanctioned ordina-
tion. Among other biographical information such as length of train-
ing, these letters list sūtras and dhāraṇīs that the candidate was able
(^2) Mahāmāyūrī is a female bodhisattva and “Queen of the Mantras” invoked in
Japan to ward off country-wide calamities.