780 james l. fordThe upshot of this scholarship demonstrates that undeniably “eso-
teric” elements were central to Nara monastic training, popular devo-
tion, and institutional ritual performances. These included the study
and copying of well-known esoteric sūtras, dhāraṇī memorization and
recitation, installation of and devotion toward esoteric deities, and rit-
ual performances involving esoteric mudrās and implements. While
it appears that Nara scholar-monks did not possess the conceptual
framework to distinguish between esoteric and exoteric doctrine or
practice, to call this constellation of activities and practices “miscella-
neous” mikkyō is an oversimplification, at best, and perhaps not even
helpful heuristically (Abé 2004, 112). It obscures or perhaps minimizes
the extraordinary degree to which esotericism pervaded Nara praxis.
In reality, even the so-called “pure” esotericism of the Heian schools
is decidedly mixed, as Shingon and Tendai monks continued to study
“exoteric” texts and perform traditional rituals. We shall turn now
to the increasing influence of esoteric thought and practice on Nara
schools after Kūkai’s transformation of the ideological landscape.
Kūkai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse
Kūkai was a paradigm-changing figure within Japanese Buddhism
because he introduced a clear taxonomy to distinguish between eso-
teric and exoteric doctrine, texts, and practices. Although Kūkai’s clas-
sification clearly privileged esoteric over exoteric, his construct was in
many ways beneficial to the established schools. Unlike Saichō, Kūkai
nurtured close relationships with scholar-monks in Nara and facili-
tated exchange between Shingon temples and the established schools.
As Abé writes,
Esoteric Buddhism served as the metalanguage that continued to sup-
port Exoteric Buddhism, both in its doctrinal studies and its practice of
lectures and sūtra chanting, as a crucial part of the Buddhistic symbol-
ization of the emperor and his Shinto ritual functions, bearing witness
to the continued influence in medieval society of Kūkai’s initial formula-
tion of Esoteric Buddhist discourse. (Abé 1999, 385)Kūkai’s efforts in building close alliances with the Nara Buddhist
establishment enabled the rapid spread of esoteric Buddhism dur-
ing the early Heian period. Indeed, many of Kūkai’s major works
were directed not at his own disciples but toward the scholar-priests
in the Nara Buddhist order whose collaboration he most needed to
help spread the esoteric doctrine (Abé 1999, 388). In doing so, Kūkai
“provided the Nara Buddhists with the linguistic tool they needed to