were some Jews living in the countryside, in general during the Roman pe-
riod, the Diaspora was an urban phenomenon. In cities such as Alexan-
dria, Jews lived in self-regulating communities, which were isolated either
by law or by custom.
The heart of any Diaspora community was the synagogue, and each
Jewish community had at least one, although larger communities had sev-
eral. These synagogues evolved into more than just meeting places. Espe-
cially after the destruction of the Temple in 70, they became the main loca-
tion for religious expression and communal interaction. The Septuagint, a
Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible composed in Alexandria, was the
most standard version of Scripture in the Diaspora. Indeed, for Jews such
as Philo, the Septuagint had divine authority.
In terms of religious practice, there was a certain amount of regional
variation among Diaspora communities. Nevertheless, according to the
often-negative comments by non-Jewish authors, the religious practices of
Diaspora Jews were quite similar to those in Judea. Diaspora Jews prac-
ticed circumcision, kept kosher, and observed the Sabbath. During the
reign of Herod the Great, an embassy of Ionian Jews appealed to the king
to intercede with Marcus Agrippa on their behalf. One of their complaints
was that their Gentile neighbors were dragging them into court on
Shabbat and their other holy days (Ant.16.27). Such an incident attests to
the importance of Sabbath observance for Diaspora Jews. The Diaspora
also supported the Temple in Jerusalem by paying the half-shekel tax in-
cumbent upon all Jewish men. In the Ionian Jews’ petition to Herod, an-
other of their complaints was that the money they had raised to be sent to
Jerusalem was being unlawfully seized by the non-Jewish government
(Ant.16.28). Further evidence of this practice appears in a speech by Cicero
in 59b.c.e.in which he defended the proconsul of Asia, Lucius Valerius
Flaccus (Pro Flacco28.66-69).
In general, Diaspora Jews seem to have coexisted peacefully with their
non-Jewish neighbors. The massacresand violence perpetrated by both
sides in the wake of the First Revolt probably reflect local conflicts and dis-
putes that had originated years before and about whose causes and origins
we can only speculate. Roman officials usually protected Jewish rights and
interests, and a number of edicts and letters that appear in Josephus’s nar-
ratives show Roman leaders such as Caesar, Antony, Augustus, and
Agrippa upholding Jewish rights and condoning their religious, political,
and social distinctiveness (Ant.14.186-267, 306-23; 16.166-73). Violations
did occur, but in most cases the Roman government quickly remedied the60chris seeman and adam kolman marshakEERDMANS -- Early Judaism (Collins and Harlow) final text
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