christology, greco-roman religious piety 239
(ἐκηρύχθη) and affirmed (ἐπιστεύθη) on the global scene (ἐν ἔθνεσιν, ἐν
κόσμῳ). he ascends (ἀνελήμφθη) on high accompanied by shouts of accla-
mation (ἐν δόξῃ). heaven and earth did more than see him; they joined in
giving him recognition and acclaim. the insights of works such as andrew
lau’s 1995 Manifest in Flesh: The Epiphany: Christology of the Pastoral Epis-
tles also need to be taken into account.87 the epiphany language of 1 tim
3:16 and the singular application of ἐπιφάνεια to the incarnation calls for
substantive consideration (versus relegation to an appendix or excurses).
Conclusion
traditionally, Paul has been deemed the author of the Pastorals with a
mid 60s ce date fitting the letters’ details and concerns. there are good
reasons for this dating and attribution. external support is noteworthy.
the earliest canonical list, not only includes the Pastorals among the Pau-
lines, but states: “Paul wrote out of affection and love, one to Philemon,
one to titus and two to timothy and these are held sacred in the esteem
of the church universal” (ca. 170–200 ce muratorian Canon lines 59–63).
the earliest church father, irenaeus (ca. 175), states, “the blessed apostles,
then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands
of linus the office of the episcopate. of this linus, Paul makes mention in
the epistles to timothy” (Against Heresies 3.3.3).88 the outcome of Paul’s
first roman imprisonment left unresolved in acts is confirmed by state-
ments as early as Clement of rome (ca. 96; 1 Clem. 5:6–8) and the mura-
torian Canon (lines 37–38) that state that Paul was released from prison
and pursued further apostolic labors.89
87 andrew y. lau, Manifest in Flesh: The Epiphany. Christology of the Pastoral Epistles
(Wunt 86; tübingen: mohr siebeck, 1996).
88 see also Clement of alexandria (ca. 200) who cites the Pastorals by book and author
(Stromata 2.11).
89 Cf. eusebius (hist. eccl. 2.22): “there is evidence that having been brought to trial,
the apostle again set out on the ministry of preaching and having appeared a second
time in the same city [rome] found fulfillment in his martyrdom.” some argue that the
absence of the Pastorals in 픓46 (ca. 200) and in marcion’s Apostolikon (ca. 140) supports a
post-apostolic date. however, they fail to note that 픓46 omits rom 1:1–5:16 and stops with
1 thessalonians, indicative of damage at the front of the papyrus scroll and lack of space
at the end. marcion’s exclusion of the Pastorals is also understandable, given their positive
stance toward the mosaic law (1 tim 1:8–11), their rejection of asceticism (1 tim 4:1–5), and
the scriptural status they give to the old testament (2 tim 3:16–17).
a common pseudonymous argument is the fact that luke’s account in acts stops short
of an early-sixties missionary tour (1 timothy & titus) and a second roman imprisonment
(2 timothy). however, the cliff-hanger ending of acts is often overlooked in this debate.