The Ethologists’ UnpaidDebtsto Spencerand Sumner 263not simplywithoutlegislativeguidance,but,to a considerableextent,in spiteof legisla-
tive hindrances.It has arisenunderthe pressureof humanwantsand resultingactivities.
Whileeachcitizenhas beenpursuinghis individualwelfare,andnonetakingthought
aboutthe divisionof labour,or consciousof the needof it, divisionof labourhas yet been
everbecomingmorecomplete.... Throughthis combinationthusspontaneouslyevolved,
everycitizenis suppliedwithdailynecessaries;whilehe yieldssomeproductor aid to
others[emphasisadded].^3It is a fact,he concludes,“thatunderall its aspectsandthroughall its ramifications,
societyis a [biological]growthand not a manufacture.”^4 Universityof Michigananthro-
pologistLeslieA. White(1900–1975)voicesagreement—“Biologicalevolutionandthe
evolutionof socioculturalsystems... are characterizedby progressivediversificationof
structureand specializationof function.Andbothdevelopstructuralmeansof coordinat-
ing partsandfunctionsandof regulating(controlling)the behaviorof the whole;both
movetowardhigherlevelsof integration.”^5 “It is not so muchthatsocietyis an organ-
ism,” RobertL. Carneiroedifies,but that “societiesand organisms”—as withthe environ-
mentsthat housetheseorganisms,happento be “systems. Thatis to say, eachis a working
unitof interdependentparts,organizedintostructures” that“carryout functions,all
leadingto the efficientoperationof the whole.”^6 For this reason,LeslieWhitejudges,“If
Spencerhadonlyusedthe word‘system’insteadof‘organism,’he wouldhavespareda
generationof sociologistsandlaymenmuchfruitlessandsometimespassionateargu-
ment.”^7
1998’sBionomicsand Its Similaritiesto Spencer’s SocialOrganism
CompareSpencer’s ruminationson economiesbeingspontaneouslyorderedenviron-
mentswiththoseof MichaelRothschildin his 1998bookBionomics:Economyas Ecosystem.
WritesRothschild,
Capitalism,or the marketeconomy,or the free-enterprisesystem...was not planned.Like
life on earth,it did not needto be.... Capitalismflourisheswhereverit is not suppressed
[rememberSpencersayingthatour marketeconomy“has becomewhatit is, not simply
withoutlegislativeguidance,but...in spiteof legislativehindrances”? –S.H.],becauseit is
a naturallyoccurringphenomenon....
A capitalisteconomycan be bestcomprehendedas a livingecosystem.Keyphenomena
observed in nature—competition,specialization, cooperation,exploitation,learning,
growth,andseveralothers—are alsocentralto businesslife. Moreover,the evolutionof
the globalecosystemandthe emergenceof modernindustrialsocietyare studdedwith
strikingparallels.... Each[manmade]organizationstrivesto surviveit its nicheof the
economicecosystem....
Themostdifficultconceptto acceptaboutthe naturalworldis thatit runsitself.No
consciousforceis neededto keepthe ecosystemgoing.Life is a self-organizingphenome-
non.Fromthe interplayof hormonesin the humanbodyto the expansionsand contrac-
tionsof the greatArcticcaribouherds,nature’s intricatelylinkedfeedbackloopsautomat-
icallymaintaina delicate,yet robustbalance.Marketsperformthe samefunctionin the
economy.Withoutcentralplanning,buyersandsellersconstantlyadjustto changing
pricesfor commodities,capital,and labor.A flexibleeconomicorderemergesspontaneous-
lyfromthe chaosof free markets[rememberthatSpencersaidthatbecausethe “division
of labour” had “spontaneouslyevolved,everycitizenis suppliedwithhis dailynecessar-
ies” while“he yieldssomeproductor aid to others” –S.H ].
Needlessto say,this thinkingbearslittleresemblanceto conventionaleconomics.Two
centuriesof economicthought,bothcapitalistandsocialist,are basedon the conceptof
“economyas machine” ratherthan“economyas ecosystem.” Nonetheless,historyhas
demonstratedthatno economybehaveslike a simple,cyclicalmachine.Likeecosystems,
economiesare spectacularlycomplexand endlesslyevolving[emphasisadded].^8