basis. The disease-associated gene networks overlap significantly with the protein–
protein interactome network maps.^52 Furthermore, the protein–protein interaction
network can also be an important tool for the prediction of adverse drug reaction
profiles and the possible development of drug resistance by integrating protein–
protein interaction networks (interactome) with drug structures.^53 These facts
further stress the importance of targeted study of human proteome in order to define
these network maps and possible perturbations as an origin of particular disease. It
seems that the hypothesis that the individual robustness of the proteome will be an
important component in personalized medicine. According to De Las Rivas and
Fontanillo^54 and Forler, Klein and Klose,^55 “the link between network properties
and phenotypes, including susceptibility to human disease, appears to be at least as
important as that between genotypes and phenotypes.” That adds an additional
complexity to the above-discussed use of omics towards their application in
personalized medicine. However, these studies also pave the way towards targeted
biomarker discovery in order to determine specific changes of proteome based on
genomic and interactomic profiles. Clinical diagnosis of cancer, cardiovascular,
neurodegenaritive and other degenerative diseases, as well as other diseases that are
most frequent plagues of the modern world, imply multidisciplinary medical
approaches and their costs is progressively increasing.
Now, the modern medicine has the opportunity to expand its instrumentation to
include the above-discussed molecular phenotypes, genetic background, and bio-
markers (mostly proteins and peptides) not only for disease detection and follow-up
of the healing process but also to distinguish particular clinical subtypes of a single
disease to better tailor both potential prevention strategies and also early treating,
personalized protocols. According to Licastro and Caruso,^56 the future treatment of
these diseases shall contemplate primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Pri-
mary prevention reduces disease outbreaks in a population by lowering exposure to
certain casual agents or promoting the host resistance. The secondary prevention
limits disease progression and recurrence by the strategy of early detection, diag-
nosis, and treatment and reduces the prevalence. Finally, the tertiary prevention
relieves the symptoms and prevents damages caused by a particular disease and
assures patient’s acceptable quality of life. Particular biomarkers play a key role for
the realization of this strategy, especially these ones that can be determined in
samples such as body fluids, blood, urine, or saliva by use of minimally invasive
sampling techniques. As mentioned above, the knowledge of patient’s genotype
gives the information about her/his risk to get a particular disease,^57 but not each
individual who is carrying risk to develop, e.g., coronary disease will also get
(^52) Goh et al. ( 2007 ), pp. 8685–8690.
(^53) Huang et al. ( 2013 ), pp. 313–324.
(^54) De Las Rivas and Fonatanillo ( 2012 ), pp. 487–496.
(^55) Forler et al. ( 2014 ), pp. 56–61.
(^56) Licastro and Caruso ( 2010 ).
(^57) De Las Rivas and Fonatanillo ( 2012 ), pp. 487–496.
190 D. Josic ́and U. Andjelkovic ́