REFERENCES
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1966). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs
for research. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
Chun, H., Kim, K., & Park, H. (2015). Effects of hand hygiene education and individual
feedback on hand hygiene behavior, MRSA, acquisition rate, and MRSA coloniza-
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Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues
for field settings. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Fakhry, M., Hannah, G. B., Anderson, O., Holmes, A., & Nathwain, D. (2012).
Effectiveness of an audible reminder on hand hygiene adherence. American Journal
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Gallo, R. C., & Montagnier, L. (2003). The discovery of HIV as the cause of AIDS. New
England Journal of Medicine, 349 , 2283–2285.» There are seven threats to internal validity: selection bias, history, maturation, testing, instru-
mentation, mortality, and statistical conclusion validity.
» There are five threats to external validity: construct validity, selection, interaction of treatment
with selection of subjects, interaction of treatment and setting, and interaction of treatment
and history.
» Quantitative studies can be classified as follows according to the timing of data collection:
retrospective, cross-sectional, longitudinal, and prospective.Apply What You Have Learned
Consider the designs used by Chun, Kim, and Park (2015) and Fakhry, Hannah, Anderson, Holmes,
and Nathwain (2012). Identify any threats to internal and external validity, and discuss strategies
researchers used to minimize these threats.168 CHAPTER 6 Key Principles of Quantitative Designs