Evidence-Based Practice for Nurses

data collection. Because researchers are considered to be tools for obtaining

information, they cannot be merely a detached observer in most cases. For

example, a nurse scientist studying how prostate cancer survivors cope with

urinary incontinence after surgery might choose to sit in on a support group

for these patients. As a participant observer, the nurse might ask questions of

the group while keeping notes on patient interactions and the main topics of

concern. The nurse would be a part of the support group for that day rather

than a nonparticipating attendee. The members of that support group may

even later become key informants to the nurse’s study of this subject. The role

of participant observer takes on an even greater meaning if the researcher has

personally experienced the phenomenon being studied. In the preceding case,

if the researcher had experienced surgery for prostate cancer and suffered the

complication of urinary incontinence, he might participate within such a group

at a deeper level. In such a case, however, the researcher must be careful not to

allow the bias of personal experience to cloud the results that arise from the

data collected from others.

Artifacts provide an additional source of data in qualitative research. This

is particularly true in historical research when the main source of data is gov-

ernmental reports, journals, books, memos, photographs, letters, or diaries. It

is important for researchers to remember when using these sources that they

can provide only a snapshot in time. Furthermore, the researcher must deter-

mine the authenticity of these sources of evidence. There is always room for

discussion about the interpretation of findings (Marshall & Rossman, 2011).

Analyzing and Interpreting Data

Although data analysis techniques may vary somewhat depending on the type

of qualitative method used, some general comments can be made. Data analy-

sis in qualitative research involves description, data reduction, analysis, and

interpretation. Unlike quantitative methods where analysis occurs only after

data collection is completed, qualitative data analysis occurs as data are col-

lected. Immersion refers to the data collection process in which the researcher

“lives” with the data over time. The researcher should constantly reflect on the

data and make comparisons with existing data as new information is obtained.

Reading and rereading the text that has been transcribed verbatim are essential.

The researcher should live with the data for a significant time, comparing every

piece of data with the others.

Researchers use a technique called memoing to record ideas that come to

them as they live with data. Researchers must keep paper and pencil or their

tape recorder handy because ideas may occur at any moment. It is important

to memo ideas as they occur because it is difficult to re-create them after a

KEY TERM

memoing: A

technique used in

qualitative research

to record ideas that

come to researchers

as they live with the

data

226 CHAPTER 9 Qualitative Designs: Using Words to Provide Evidence