Additional related methods that grew out of ethnography, ethnoscience
and ethnonursing, warrant mention here. Ethnoscience is a method used in
anthropology to discover nursing knowledge. Ethnonursing is the systematic
study and classification of nursing care beliefs, values, and practices in a par-
ticular culture (Leininger, 1985; Welch, 2002). Cultural representatives share
knowledge acquired through their language, experiences, beliefs, and value
systems regarding nursing phenomena such as care, health, and environment.
Because the focus is on nursing, studies using these methods are usually not
as broad in scope and depth as studies conducted to explain an entire culture.
Therefore, obtaining information may not require one to live in the culture for
an extended period of time. These methods were used by Madeleine Leininger
(1985), founder of transcultural nursing. Leininger, a noted professor and prolific
author and theorist, earned a doctorate in cultural and social anthropology,
which influenced her research related to nursing. She derived her theory of
culture care diversity and universality from work in anthropology and nursing.
Leininger firmly believed that quantitative methods had limited use in study-
ing cultures and health and that ethnographic methods provided the clearest
information when researching other cultures.
Philosophical Underpinnings
Ethnography, whether general or focused, grew out of the idea that researchers
learn about people by learning from them (Roper & Shapira, 2000). Ethnog-
raphy originated from the discipline of anthropology with social scientists
such as Margaret Mead. However, early ethnographers were often considered
“professional strangers” (Cruz & Higginbottom, 2013, p. 37), unwanted by the
people whom they studied, and whose writings often mispresented the culture
and beliefs of the people because of the influence of the day’s political loyalties.
The philosophical roots of ethnography are in naturalism, which emphasizes
or focuses on setting and environment of subjects. Participant observation is
still considered a key method in ethnography, though many researchers have
used more broad qualitative methods to conduct ethnographic research. Today,
ethnography is used by nurse researchers not only to study other cultures but
also to study specific areas or “cultures” in nursing such as nurse triaging in
the emergency room (Fry, 2012).
Method
A few techniques distinguish ethnographic research from the other methods
previously discussed in this chapter. Because participant observation is a key
strategy in this type of research, gaining access to a group, particularly if it is
one to which the researcher is not attached, has unique challenges. Gaining
access to a particular group often requires that the researcher go through a
KEY TERMS
ethnoscience: A
method used in
anthropology to
discover nursing
knowledge
ethnonursing:
Systematic study
and classification
of nursing care
beliefs, values,
and practices in a
particular culture9.2 The Four Major Types of Qualitative Research 237