directly, which reduces stem consumption (the stems
must later be cut down with a machete) but greatly
reduces labor.
Alternative forages. Since 1985, the dairy plant, the
Coope, and farmers have tried alternative forages (sug-
arcane, alfalfa, sorghum, and oats), but none has been
adopted (Madrigal Chavarria 1988b). Although expe-
rimental farm results were moderately promising
(Madrigal Chavarria 1988a), most farmers found the
crops demanding and risky. During the 1980s, the
dairy plant promoted silos to increase dry season pro-
duction. Most have been abandoned due to marginal
feed quality and high labor demands. One farmer has
planted oats, clovers, and brassicas as forage with
good results. A significant positive contribution of the
brassicas is their "soil plowing" effect. Their roots
infiltrate the soil as they grow, aerate it, and bring up
nutrients from lower soil horizons (see Wolfe, "Bras-
sicas as Biological Plows," p. 411). Research is needed
to investigate this legume and other alternative forage
and cover crops for Monteverde.
Pest management. Most upland dairy farmers plant
grasses that tolerate spittlebugs. Even so, pest popu-
lations increasingly overwhelm them. Researchers are
developing forage grass cultivars that are resistant
to spittlebug attack (Ferrufino and Lapointe 1989,
Lapointe et al. 1992). Maintaining healthy soil and a
vigorous sward reduces invasions of weeds and dam-
age from some insect pests. Cutting weeds by hand is
labor intensive, less effective than herbicides in con-
trolling some weeds, and can facilitate the broadcast
of weed seeds (Mendoza et al. 1986).Windbreaks. The trade winds that buffet the area
between December and March are a major limitation
to dairy production. Windbreaks reduce pasture
desiccation, mechanical damage, and energy loss in
cows. They increase milk production and provide
other benefits: reduced soil erosion, watershed pro-
tection, habitat for wildlife and beneficial insects,
fodder for cows, nitrogen for the soil, and fruit and
wood for farmers.
In the Monteverde upland area, well over a million
trees (many native species) have been planted for pas-
ture windbreaks. About 70% of the farms have par-
ticipated in windbreak projects (J. L. Vargas, pers.
comm.). The first of these was started by the Dairy
Plant in 1981 using exotic, fast-growing species
(mostly cypress, eucalyptus, pine, and casuarina).
This project provided nursery-grown trees and techni-
cal assistance to producers. The Monteverde Conser-
vation League (MCL) project focused on native spe-
cies trees (see Chap. 10, Conservation Institutions).Obstacles to widespread planting of windbreaks, par-
ticularly of native species trees, are high. In 1990,
windbreaks were estimated to cost $800 per farm in-
cluding the trees themselves, fencing to protect them
from cows, herbicides to prepare the ground, fertiliz-
ers, and labor. Because it takes several years to real-
ize any benefits from windbreaks, most farmers have
needed subsidies.Alternatives to wooden fenceposts. The hardwoods
that provide long-lasting posts have already been cut.
Farmers have cut progressively softer trees, the posts
of which decompose faster (some in less than five
years), which accelerates the need to cut more trees.
The advantage of wooden posts is that farmers can
usually obtain them from their farms; labor and the
tree-cutting permit process are the only costs. In re-
cent years, the MCL has made a trunk borer available
to farmers to help them determine whether a tree is
sound and will make good posts, thus preventing un-
necessary cutting of unsuitable trees.
There are three alternatives to cut wooden fence-
posts: living trees, cement fenceposts, and metal
fenceposts. Living fenceposts are obtained by cutting
branches from trees that coppice (sprout roots and
regrow from sticks, or grow new branches from
stumps). In the lowlands, living fenceposts are used
extensively (Fig. 11.4). Their main disadvantages are
that they grow over barbed wire, they cannot be used
for electric fencing, and no known species coppice
well in upland Monteverde.
Cement posts are long-lasting and may be used
with electric or barbed wire fencing. They are expen-
sive, costing several times more than wooden posts
(J. Wolfe, pers. comm.). It is unlikely they will be
widely adopted in the uplands. Metal fenceposts are
gaining popularity in Monteverde because of their
durability and cost, which is comparable to purchased
wooden posts. They must be used with electric fenc-
ing, as they cannot withstand the weight of leaning
cows. Operating costs of electric fencing are low be-
cause animals quickly learn to avoid the fence. They
are also easy to move to adjust paddock size for rota-
tional grazing.Genetic improvement. The dairy plant has played an
active role in genetic improvement of the area's herds.
The original goal of their artificial insemination pro-
gram was to increase production efficiency. However,
their goal has shifted toward producing higher qual-
ity milk rather than greater quantity. Since the mid-
1980s, Jersey cows (which produce a lower volume
of higher fat milk) have replaced Holsteins on many
farms. Jerseys are also hardier and cause less soil com-
paction and erosion because they are smaller.397 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability