dentally, Costa Rican school vacation begins at this
time.
Producers grow their coffee bushes in nurseries with
seed supplied by the Coope. The bushes are trans-
planted to the field the following year, in rows 2 m apart
(ca. 5000 coffee plants/ha). Coffee patches are small (<2
ha). The first harvest occurs the third year, and the
bushes are replaced after five years of production. The
major varieties of Coffea arabica planted in the area
include Arabigo (38%), Caturra, and Catuai (40% to-
gether). The latter two are improved varieties that thrive
without shade trees. Minor varieties include Hibrido
Tico, Extranjero, Katimor, and Villa Sarchi. Coffee is
traditionally grown under a canopy of shade trees,
which create the understory environment to which the
species is adapted. Shaded coffee agroecosystems of-
fer multiple benefits: the trees provide fruit (banana and
plantain), fuelwood and lumber, nitrogen fixation, soil
stabilization, water retention, pest and disease control,
and habitat for wildlife and beneficial insects (Smith-
sonian Migratory Bird Center 1994).
The productivity of coffee patches varies widely in
Monteverde, but it has generally risen with involve-
ment of the Coope. The producers with newer or reno-
vated plantations typically obtain yields of about 1800
kg/ha of dry coffee. Top yields nationally and in
Monteverde reach 3200-3700 kg/ha (CoopeSanta
Elena, R.L., unpubl. data), making Costa Rica's pro-
ductivity among the highest in the world.
Coffee is vulnerable to pests and weeds, mainly
fungi: Hemileia vastatrix, Mycena citricolor, Cerco-
spora coffeicola, and Rosellinea spp. Leaf-cutter ants
(Acromyrmex and Atta) are significant pests of young
bushes. Their principal combatant, the insecticide
Mirex (a chlorinated hydrocarbon; Hill 1983), was
banned in 1991. One of the most damaging insect
pests of coffee, the coffee berry borer ("broca del cafe,"
Coleoptera: Scolytidae, Hypothenemus hampei), has
not yet appeared in Costa Rica. The control of weeds
is labor intensive. Although some removal is done
by hand, many producers use herbicides such as
Roundup (glyphosate).
11.3.3. Sustainability of Coffee Production
Historically, the intensification of coffee production
has coincided with the elimination of shade trees
(London 1994). With the development of sun-tolerant
dwarf varieties, shade trees are removed and bushes
are planted in dense formations. This trend has con-
tributed to Costa Rica's rise as a world leader in pro-
ductivity. However, the high yields of sun-tolerant
varieties require heavy use of nitrogen fertilizer and
pesticides. Erosion rates may also rise with the re-
moval of the overstory trees.Environmentally beneficial management practices
include the use of pest-resistant coffee varieties, wide
spacing among bushes to control disease, pruning
shade trees and infected bushes, and use of organic
and/or chemical fertilizers to strengthen plant resis-
tance to diseases and pests. Groundcovers can im-
prove sustainability by suppressing weeds, reducing
spread of diseases, limiting erosion, providing nutri-
ents and organic matter, and reducing evaporation
from the soil. In San Luis, some producers have used
perennial groundnut (Arachis pintoi) as a cover crop.
This plant does not thrive in Monteverde's higher
elevations, so other options are needed (J. Lopez, pers.
comm.). Terracing is another beneficial practice. Ero-
sion can be severe on coffee plantations, partly due
to aggressive weed control efforts that expose the soil.
Some farmers use terraces to reduce erosion, but they
are labor intensive. The Coope promotes use of bench
terraces for slopes of 10% or more.
Waste pulp from processing is a pressing envi-
ronmental issue in coffee production. The Tropical
Science Center (TSC) cites it as one of the worst causes
of surface water contamination in the country (Hart-
shorn et al. 1982). It is acidic and generates a substan-
tial biological oxygen demand in the rivers into which
it is dumped. Alternatives are limited, as it is heavy,
bulky, and centrally generated. It is also wet, requir-
ing at least some drying for most uses. Although the
pulp is high in organic matter, it contributes only 10—
20% of the nutrients of chemical fertilizers and it must
be composted. Alternative pulp treatments that do
not work well include caffeine and pectin extraction,
commercial-scale animal feeding, and biogas produc-
tion. The best alternatives are to use dried pulp for
fuel and composted pulp as a soil amendment. The
Coope processes 100% of the coffee pulp generated
from processing into organic fertilizer, which is sold
for use on coffee, sugarcane, and vegetable plots.11.3.4. Organic Coffee Production
As of 1995, several organic coffee plots that meet the
guidelines established by the International Organic
Crop Improvement Association (OCIA) have been
maintained. There is little organic premium-quality
coffee available on the international market, so this
is an attractive market opportunity. In organic produc-
tion, varietal selection is one of the principal tech-
niques used to combat pests and diseases. Organic
producers prefer Katimor and other older varieties of
coffee for their resistance, particularly to coffee leaf
rust (Hemileia vastatrix). They also use the traditional
shade system. OCIA-certified plots are permitted the
use of Bordeaux Mix (lime with 5% copper) as a fun-
gicide; otherwise they use no agrichemicals. They use402 Agriculture in Monteverde: Moving Toward Sustainability