366 Invasive Stink Bugs and Related Species (Pentatomoidea)
observations indicate expansion in South America, the pest population has declined dramatically over
the past 15 years in this continent (Panizzi and Lucini 2016). This decline has been attributed to
increased use of herbicides, change in cultivation systems, inter-specific competition among stink bug
species infesting major crops, increased impact of egg parasitoids, and climate change (Panizzi and
Lucini 2016).
Continental countries without any records for Nezara viridula include El Salvador and Guatemala
in Central America, and Bolivia, Peru, and Suriname in South America. For South America, DeWitt
and Godfrey (1972) showed the distribution range reaching the state of Amazonas and wide distribu-
tion in the state of Pará. However, we were unable to locate records confirming the presence in the
Amazonas and, contrary to the reported wide distribution in Pará, records exist for only one locality
in Pará. Although the absence in the Central America countries probably is due to failed collections or
observations, the absence in the Amazonian basin (Figure 7.6) may be due to climate or some other fac-
tors limiting the distribution of N. viridula. There are no studies concerning the range expansion of this
species in Central and South America; most studies relate to the increase of soybean cultivation in the
region (Panizzi and Slansky 1985, Panizzi et al. 2000, Vivan and Panizzi 2006).
Kavar et al. (2006) found evidence for at least four different haplotypes of Nezara viridula in Central
and South America with two of the haplotypes unique to Brazil. The other two haplotypes showed dis-
tinct relationships: one haplotype shared by Central and northern South America, eastern Mediterranean,
and North America populations; and the other shared by southeastern South America and western
Mediterranean populations. The authors discussed these results as a consequence of different coloniza-
tion routes of N. viridula in the Western Hemisphere. Interestingly, the distribution of this species in
Central and South America supports a separation of at least two different populations (Figure 7.6).
The first record of Nezara viridula in this region came from Fabricius (1798) with the description
of Cimex spirans, a junior synonym of N. viridula (Stål 1868), from the West Indies. Since then,
FIGURE 7.6 (See color insert.) Distribution of Nezara viridula in the Caribbean (West Indies), Central America, and
South America. Solid yellow circles and yellow circles with black center dot indicate, respectively, exact localities recorded
in literature and inferred localities from country or province/state/county records. The white line delimits the Amazon Basin.