(see table 20.3 for definitions of testing environments; also
see Brown 1993). Offspring survival, growth, and age at eye
opening are the most frequently measured variables.
Male presence has little or no effect on the survival,
growth, and development of most species studied in stan-
dard or seminatural environments (table 20.3). Positive ef-
fects of paternal presence on offspring survival, and to a
lesser extent on offspring growth, are reported for challeng-
ing environments (table 20.3). Although challenging envi-
ronments mimic some stresses under which rodents live in
the field, these environments do not reflect the complexity
of stresses and interactions faced by free-living rodents. For
example, challenging laboratory environments do not in-
clude a variety of ground and aerial predators and poten-
tially infanticidal conspecifics. Given the physical and so-
cial stresses confronted by free-living rodents, male pres-
ence probably has an even more positive impact in the field,
but only three studies have examined this. Paternal presence
significantly enhanced offspring survival in free-living Cali-
fornia mice (Peromyscus californicus;Gubernick and Teferi
2000), and the authors suggest that this resulted from direct
care of young rather than protection against infanticidal
intruders. However, paternal presence had no impact on
offspring survival in free-living prairie voles (Getz and Mc-
Guire 1993) or muskrats (Marinelli et al. 1997). The lack
of effect in these two species may be related to the high
quality and quantity of food available in the habitat for the
study population of prairie voles (Getz and McGuire 1993)
and the low population density (and hence low risk of in-
fanticide) in the muskrat study (Marinelli et al. 1997).240 Chapter Twenty
Table 20.3 Effects of paternal presence on offspring
Testing Eyes
Species condition† Survival Growth open Reference
House mouse (Mus musculus) X X Priestnall and Young 1978
S X X Wright and Brown 2000
C(E) X
Southern grasshopper mouse (Onychomys S X X McCarty and Southwick 1977a
torridus)
Gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus)SXX Elwood and Broom 1978
Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus)S X Storey and Snow 1987
SN X
S , X McGuire et al. 1992
SN X X Wang and Novak 1992
Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) S X, Xa McGuire et al. 1992
SN X X X Wang and Novak 1992
C(P) Getz et al. 1992
F X Getz and McGuire 1993
Red-backed vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) SN X X X McGuire 1997
Collared lemming (Dicrostonyx richardsoni) S X X X Shilton and Brooks 1989
C(MR) X X X
Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) F X Marinelli et al. 1997
California mouse (Peromyscus californicus)S Dudley 1974
C(MR)
C(WE)
S X X Gubernick et al. 1993
C(T) X
C(E) X
C(E) Cantoni and Brown 1997
F Gubernick and Teferi 2000
S X X Vieira and Brown 2003
Djungarian hamster (Phodopus campbelli)S Wynne-Edwards and Lisk 1989
Siberian hamster (Phodopus sungorus) S X X Wynne-Edwards and Lisk 1989
Striped mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) C(T) X b Schradin and Pillay 2005b
Green acouchi (Myoprocta pratti) S, SNc Kleiman 1970
†NOTES: plus ()enhanced or accelerated by father; minus ()depressed or delayed by father; Xno significant effect of father. Empty cells indicate that the variable was
not recorded in the study. Sstandard laboratory conditions (cage, ad libitumfood and water, warm ambient temperature); SNseminatural environment (increased space
and cover, ad libitumfood and water, warm ambient temperature); Cchallenging laboratory conditions (animals are subjected to some form of stress, including exercise for
food [E], cold ambient temperatures [T], mother removed periodically [MR], pups weaned early [WE], or predator present [P]); Fa field conditions.
bMother primiparous, mother multiparous.
cMice from desert habitat; father presence did not affect growth of young from grassland habitat.
Mix of small cages, large cages and rooms; no distinction made in the data.