Chapter
Thirteen
Altered states of consciousness
remember what you started out to say before you finish
the sentence, but it can also create more focused attention
on the here-and-now, and even a sense of liberation. Time
can seem to speed up, slow down, or change completely,
an effect that has long been linked with changes in mem-
ory. For example, a doctor experimenting with cannabis
more than a century ago noted many effects including a
dry mouth, aimless wandering, slurred speech, freedom
from worry, and an irresistible tendency to laugh. For him,
The most peculiar effect was a complete loss of time-
relation; time seemed to have no existence. I was
continually taking out my watch, thinking that hours
must have passed, whereas only a few minutes
had elapsed. This, I believe, was due to a complete loss
of memory for recent events.
(Dunbar, 1905, p. 68)The third general variable is arousal. Some states of meditation are characterised
by very low arousal and deep relaxation (Holmes, 1987), and more drastic prac-
tices can reduce the metabolic rate so far that little food and oxygen are required.
In such a state, trained yogins may stay immobile for long periods and may even
be buried alive for days at a time, even though most of us would die in the same
circumstances. However, learning to meditate requires great mental effort, and
with some methods arousal is increased rather than reduced (Lumma, Koko, and
Singer, 2015). At the other extreme are ASCs of the highest arousal, such as reli-
gious and ritual frenzies, or speeding on amphetamines. Changes in arousal can
affect every aspect of mental functioning.
Thinking about these three variables, we might imagine some kind of three-
dimensional space in which different ASCs can be positioned – or, more realis-
tically, a very complex multidimensional space within which all possible ASCs
might be found: a phenomenal state space, or phenospace (Metzinger, 2009). If
states of consciousness (SoCs) could be accurately mapped within such a space,
we might understand how each relates to the others, how each can be induced,
and how to move from one state to another. But although many attempts have
been made, the task is not easy.
MAPPING STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Imagine a vast multidimensional space in which a person’s current state is defined
by hundreds or even thousands of variables. This is just too confusing to work
with. To make the task more manageable, we need to answer two main questions:
first, can we simplify the space and use just a few dimensions, and if so, which
ones; second, how discrete are the individual SoCs? Is it possible to occupy any
position in the multidimensional space, or are possible SoCs separated from each
other by impossible areas?
The early psychophysiologists tried to map visual and auditory sensations in
multidimensional spaces, but the first attempt at systematic mapping of states
of consciousness was made by Tart (1975). He described a simple space with
FIGURE 13.2 • It is easy to imagine altered
states connected up in a vast
space, but difficult to turn this
idea into a realistic working map.
How discrete are the different
states? Where do the paths
between them go? How many
dimensions are there, and how
many would we need to use to
make an effective map?