356 Invasive Stink Bugs and Related Species (Pentatomoidea)
et al. 2000, Miklas et al. 2003). The possibility of existing cryptic species was demonstrated by the dis-
covery of behavioral differences within some populations (e.g., Ryan et al. 1996, Jeraj and Walter 1998)
and indicates further research is needed.
- 3 Distr ibution
Distribution of Nezara viridula often is referred to as worldwide or cosmopolitan as the species is known
to occur throughout tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions of Eurasia, Africa, Australia, and
the Americas approximately between latitudes 45°N and 45°S (Yukawa and Kiritani 1965; Todd 1989;
McPherson and McPherson 2000; Panizzi et al. 2000; Yukawa et al. 2007, 2009; Musolin 2007, 2012;
Tougou et al. 2009, Panizzi and Lucini 2016). The species is constantly expanding its range (Yukawa et al.
2007, 2009; Musolin 2007, 2012; Rabitsch 2008, 2010), both in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres,
by natural dispersal (e.g., Aldrich 1990, Tougou et al. 2009) and human-assisted translocation, which
complicate a strict and comprehensive determination of its boundaries.
- 3 .1 A s i a
7.3.1.1 Range in Asia: Overview
Before describing the range of Nezara viridula in Asia, it should be noted that there is no agreed defini-
tion of the biogeographical boundaries between Asia and Europe, Africa, or Australia. Whereas in most
cases the situation is clear, in others, the geographic, economic, and political points of view might differ
in attributing a particular country or entity to a particular part of the world. This is especially true for
the Transcaucasian region, with Georgia or Armenia sometimes attributed to Europe or Asia. Another
problem arises when different parts of a country lie on different continents, which, as examples, are the
cases with Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkey (Europe and Asia), and Egypt (Africa and Asia). Finally, there
are a few countries/entities with currently uncertain official status, including the Republic of Cyprus,
Hong Kong, Abkhazia, and possibly others.
Keeping these difficulties in mind, to date, Nezara viridula has been reported in the following countries/
entities in Asia: Abkhazia, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China
(including Hong Kong and Macau), Christmas Island, Cocos Island, Cyprus, Egypt, Georgia, India,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Korea (North and South), Kuwait, Laos, Lebanon, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syria, Taiwan,
Thailand, Turkey, Vietnam, and Yemen (Kirichenko 1951, 1955; Putshkov 1972; Singh 1973; Abdu and
Shaumar 1985; Todd 1989; Waterhouse 1998; McPherson and McPherson 2000; Panizzi et al. 2000;
Rider 2006a,b; Musolin 2012; CABI Invasive Species Compendium 2015; Abdul Aziz Mohamed, per-
sonal communication [for Bahrain]). In some of these countries (e.g., Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India,
Japan, Myanmar, Taiwan, Turkey, and Vietnam), N. viridula is widespread whereas in others, it is present
only as a local or restricted distribution (e.g., Laos, Thailand, and the Philippines) (Waterhouse 1998,
Musolin 2012, CABI Invasive Species Compendium 2015).
In a few countries/entities in Asia, Nezara viridula has not been reported as yet. In Russia, the spe-
cies is known in the south of the European part of the country (Kirichenko 1951, 1955; Rider 2006a,b;
Neimorovets 2010) but not in the Asian part (Vinokurov et al. 2010). However, again, it is important
which definition of a boundary between Asia and Europe is used, as the species is known in several
neighbouring Transcaucasian countries/entities such as Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. The Asian
part of Russia, east of the Ural Mountains, is too cold for N. viridula. It is important to note that for the
species’ overwintering success, the mean temperature during the coldest month of winter is believed to
be critical; it should not be lower than 5°C (Musolin 2012; see below and Section 7.4.4).
The absence of Nezara viridula in some other Asian countries/entities may be explained by the climate
characteristic of these regions. For example, Armenia also is located in the Transcaucasian region (i.e.,
partly in a subtropical climate), but we are not aware of any reliable records of N. viridula from this
country. The species might be expected to arrive and survive (at least temporarily) in the comparatively