The orator seeks to arouse his countrymen to the dangers of Philip’s encroachment
on Athenian and general Greek interests. In the speeches of Demosthenes, Philip
emerges as an unscrupulous, restless, cunning and efficient figure, who will stop at
nothing to increase his own power and thus threaten the liberties of all who come
into contact with him. Each speech is a response to particular circumstances and
includes practical suggestions for action. On more than one occasion, he urged the
sending of a force to protect Athenian interests in northern Greece, not only
consisting of mercenaries but made up with a substantial proportion of citizen
soldiers, under citizen commanders and backed by naval support. He urged the
Athenians to use the Theoric fund (designed for festival provision) for military
purposes. Mercenaries were dispatched to Olynthus in 349/8, but Athens was
distracted by the revolt of Euboea and they proved to be too few and too late.
A leading political figure at the time, Demosthenes was part of the embassy that
negotiated peace with Philip in 346. Doubtless he regarded this as a necessary
temporary expedient in the face of rebellious allies and diminishing resources. When
Philip continued to interfere in Greek affairs even as far as the Peloponnese, he went
on embassies to other states in an attempt to dissuade them from any Macedonian
entanglement. He tried every means to bring the peace to an end. With their grain
supplies threatened by Philip’s activities in the Bosporus, the Athenians finally
dispatched a fleet against him. Demosthenes endeavoured to organise a general
Greek alliance; he was present at the battle of Chaeronea in 338. Philip’s victory here
was the beginning of the end of the independent Greek city states, which were now
atthe mercy of Philip, who might have marched against Athens if he had wished.
Demosthenes’ speeches respond to the particular needs of their occasions but
also contain recurring themes and a larger analysis. As a champion of liberty and
democracy, he found all that Philip represented anathema. But he was not blind to
the potential weaknesses of democratic government. On several occasions, he points
out that assembly resolutions are valueless, unless there is the will to carry them out.
Criticism of his fellow orators is a constant theme.
I think the true citizen must put the reality of survival above the gratification of
rhetoric. (3.21)... Since the appearance of our modern speakers, who ask ‘What
are your wishes? What proposal would you like? What can I do for your gratifica-
tion?’, Athenian strength has been squandered for immediate popularity:
(Olynthiac, 3, 22)The system of public scrutiny of officials in the military and civil areas of state might
have an inhibiting and paralysing effect, as those holding executive office sought
above all to avoid anything that might lead to investigation and prosecution. The very
strengths of democracy could be weakening: Philip, who controlled the army, the
76 THE GREEKS