RECognizing LogiCAL FALLACiEs 231are citing have expertise in the subject. An awareness of this type of fallacy
has become increasingly important as celebrities offer support for candi-
dates running for office or act as spokespeople for curbing global warming
or some other cause. The candidate may be the best person for the office,
and there may be very good reasons to control global warming; but we
need to question the legitimacy of a nonexpert endorsement.- Ad Hominem. An ad hominem argument focuses on the person mak-
ing a claim instead of on the claim itself. (Ad hominem is Latin for “to the
person.”) In most cases, an ad hominem argument does not have a bearing
on the truth or the quality of a claim.
Keep in mind that it is always important to address the claim or the
reasoning behind it, rather than the person making the claim. “Of course
Senator Wiley supports oil drilling in Alaska — he’s in the pocket of the oil
companies!” is an example of an ad hominem argument. Senator Wiley may
have good reasons for supporting oil drilling in Alaska that have nothing to
do with his alleged attachment to the oil industry. However, if an individual’s
character is relevant to the argument, then an ad hominem argument can
be valid. If Senator Wiley has been found guilty of accepting bribes from an
oil company, it makes sense to question both his credibility and his claims. - Shifting the Issue. This type of fallacy occurs when an author draws
attention away from the issue instead of offering evidence that will enable
people to draw their own conclusions about the soundness of an argu-
ment. For example:
Affirmative action proponents accuse me of opposing equal opportunity in the
workforce. I think my positions on military expenditures, education, and pub-
lic health speak for themselves.
The author of this statement does not provide a chain of reasoning that would
enable readers to judge his or her stance on the issue of affirmative action. - Either/Or Fallacy. At times, an author will take two extreme posi-
tions to force readers to make a choice between two seemingly contradic-
tory positions. For example:
Either you support the war in Iraq, or you are against it.
Although the author has set up an either/or condition, in reality one posi-
tion does not exclude the other. Many people support the troops in Iraq
even though they do not support the reasons for starting the war. - Sweeping Generalizations. When an author attempts to draw a con-
clusion without providing sufficient evidence to support the conclusion or
examining possible counterarguments, he or she may be making sweeping
generalizations. For example:
Despite the women’s movement in the 1960s and 1970s, women still do not
receive equal pay for equal work. Obviously, any attempt to change the status
quo for women is doomed to failure.
As is the case with many fallacies, the author’s position may be reasonable,
but we cannot accept the argument at face value. Reading critically entails
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