of purpose when the RFC became
the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1918.
The 1911–1920 Cairo-Bagh-
dad air route can be attributed to
Brooke-Popham’s work. Creating
new aviation links was part of
Britain’s effort to unify the Empire
and meet the demand for reliable
communications, a demand that
extended to the Far East. Brooke-
Popham held the Iraq Mandate
Command in 1928, a period of Arab
unrest, when Britain used airpower
as a tool of suppression and con-
trol. In later years, the rising RAF
air marshal worked to improve
Britain’s tense relations with Egypt
through the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty
of 1936. Anthony Eden, British
foreign secretary and later prime
minister, gave Brooke-Popham full
credit and praise for progress made
with Egypt on a variety of conten-
tious issues.
As early as 1921, discussions
had commenced in London on the
future defence of the island for-
tress of Singapore, located on the
southern tip of the Malay penin-
sula. Anglo-Japanese relations had
deteriorated since the Anglo-Jap-
anese Alliance of 1902. Japanese
military power had greatly in-
creased, especially with the defeat
of the Imperial Russian Navy in
1905, and strong pressure on Great
Britain from the United States to
reduce Anglo-Japanese coopera-
tion. “Navalism” was on the rise
as Japan looked with envy on the
resource-rich European colonies in
the Pacific and the Far East.
Neither Churchill nor his mili-
tary commanders really understood
the impending Japanese threat
to Britain’s Far-Eastern Empire
and its vital naval fortification at
Singapore. Churchill thought it
“irrational” for Japan to attack
Great Britain, and he had serious
doubts about Japanese militarycapability, much as he had about
Ottoman fighting abilities before
the First World War. According to
Dye, Brooke-Popham shared iden-
tical views. The British strategy was
to send out the needed reinforce-
ments to Singapore if and when a
Japanese attack occurred rather
than to keep a permanent force in
place. No one imagined then that
Britain would be facing a hostile
Germany and Italy when Japan
made good on its threats to Singa-
pore.
During the build-up to the
Second World War from 1937 until
1939, Brooke-Popham served as
governor of the Kenya colony. Lon-
don chose him because it wanted
a governor with military experi-
ence. Italy had invaded Abyssinia
(Ethiopia), which shares Kenya’s
northern border. Brooke-Popham’s
service was adequate but not
distinguished, and he rejoined the
RAF with the outbreak of the war
in Europe.
Journalists described a frail
and tired Brooke-Popham, who,
at the then rather advanced age of
sixty-two, was made Command-
er-in-Chief of the Far East Com-
mand, an appointment confirmed
at an October 1940 luncheon with
Churchill. The appointment cameas a surprise to Brooke-Popham
and other senior military com-
manders, since Britain’s relation-
ship with Imperial Japan was wors-
ening and Brooke-Popham was not
considered a wartime commander.
To add to the dire situation, Japan
received captured top-secret British
intelligence from her German
ally regarding defence of Britain’s
Asian colonies, which revealed
that Churchill’s first priority was
the war in Europe. Presciently,
Brooke-Popham, with Churchill’s
approval, drafted a plan to meet a
Japanese land attack on Malaya,
but “Operation Matador” was never
fully implemented or executed, Dye
writes. Ultimately Japan did attack
Singapore from the land side.
Dye creates a compelling nar-
rative of events leading up to the
fall of Singapore—and the downfall
of Brooke-Popham’s career. De-
spite displaying public optimism
about meeting the Japanese threat,
Brooke-Popham revealed his con-
cerns in private letters to his much
younger wife, Opal. He shared his
thoughts with his American and
Dutch Pacific allies, who also feared
a Japanese attack on their Asian
possessions. Brooke-Popham was
provided with a very small staff,
and his requests for more modern
armaments fell on deaf ears as
London gave higher priority to the
fighting in Europe and North
Africa.
Brooke-Popham’s relations
with the press were poor, especial-
ly with American journalists, and
there was considerable backbiting
among the British resident officials.
Life magazine published a July
1941 cover story describing him
as “exquisitely English—tough,
tactful, thoughtful, and fond of
flowers.” Though he met his social
and official duties, Brooke-Popham
did himself no favors by earning aBOOKS, ARTS, AND CURIOSITIESof purpose when the RFC became
theRoyalAirForce(RAF)in1918.
The 1911–1920 Cairo-Bagh-
dad air route can be attributed to
Brooke-Popham’s work. Creating
new aviation links was part of
Britain’s effort to unify the Empire
and meet the demand for reliable
communications, a demand that
extended to the Far East. Brooke-
Popham held the Iraq Mandate
Command in 1928, a period of Arab
unrest, when Britain used airpower
as a tool of suppression and con-
trol. In later years, the rising RAF
airmarshalworkedtoimprove
Britain’stenserelationswithEgypt
throughtheAnglo-EgyptianTreaty
of1936.AnthonyEden,British
foreignsecretaryandlaterprime
minister,gaveBrooke-Pophamfull
creditandpraiseforprogressmade
withEgyptona varietyofconten-
tiousissues.
Asearlyas1921,discussions
hadcommencedinLondononthe
futuredefenceoftheislandfor-
tressofSingapore,locatedonthe
southerntipoftheMalaypenin-
sula.Anglo-Japaneserelationshad
deterioratedsincetheAnglo-Jap-
aneseAllianceof1902.Japanese
militarypowerhadgreatlyin-
creased,especiallywiththedefeat
oftheImperialRussianNavyin
1905,andstrongpressureonGreat
BritainfromtheUnitedStatesto
reduceAnglo-Japanesecoopera-
tion.“Navalism”wasontherise
asJapanlookedwithenvyonthe
resource-richEuropeancoloniesin
thePacificandtheFarEast.
Neither Churchill nor his mili-
tary commanders really understood
the impending Japanese threat
to Britain’s Far-Eastern Empire
and its vital naval fortification at
Singapore. Churchill thought it
“irrational” for Japan to attack
Great Britain, and he had serious
doubts about Japanese military
capability,muchashehadabout
Ottomanfightingabilitiesbefore
theFirstWorldWar.Accordingto
Dye,Brooke-Pophamsharediden-
ticalviews.TheBritishstrategywas
tosendouttheneededreinforce-
mentstoSingaporeif andwhena
Japaneseattackoccurredrather
thantokeepa permanentforcein
place.Nooneimaginedthenthat
Britainwouldbefacinga hostile
GermanyandItalywhenJapan
madegoodonitsthreatstoSinga-
pore.
Duringthebuild-uptothe
SecondWorldWarfrom 1937 until
1939,Brooke-Pophamservedas
governoroftheKenyacolony.Lon-
donchosehimbecauseit wanted
a governorwithmilitaryexperi-
ence.ItalyhadinvadedAbyssinia
(Ethiopia),whichsharesKenya’s
northernborder.Brooke-Popham’s
servicewasadequatebutnot
distinguished,andherejoinedthe
RAFwiththeoutbreakofthewar
inEurope.
Journalistsdescribeda frail
andtiredBrooke-Popham,who,
atthethenratheradvancedageof
sixty-two,wasmadeCommand-
er-in-ChiefoftheFarEastCom-
mand,anappointmentconfirmed
atanOctober 1940 luncheonwith
Churchill.Theappointmentcameasa surprisetoBrooke-Popham
andotherseniormilitarycom-
manders,sinceBritain’srelation-
shipwithImperialJapanwaswors-
eningandBrooke-Pophamwasnot
considereda wartimecommander.
Toaddtothediresituation,Japan
receivedcapturedtop-secretBritish
intelligencefromherGerman
allyregardingdefenceofBritain’s
Asiancolonies,whichrevealed
thatChurchill’sfirstprioritywas
thewarinEurope.Presciently,
Brooke-Popham,withChurchill’s
approval,drafteda plantomeeta
JapaneselandattackonMalaya,
but“OperationMatador”wasnever
fullyimplementedorexecuted,Dye
writes.UltimatelyJapandidattack
Singaporefromthelandside.
Dyecreatesa compellingnar-
rativeofeventsleadinguptothe
fallofSingapore—andthedownfall
ofBrooke-Popham’scareer.De-
spitedisplayingpublicoptimism
aboutmeetingtheJapanesethreat,
Brooke-Pophamrevealedhiscon-
cernsinprivateletterstohismuch
youngerwife,Opal.Hesharedhis
thoughtswithhisAmericanand
DutchPacificallies,whoalsofeared
a JapaneseattackontheirAsian
possessions.Brooke-Pophamwas
providedwitha verysmallstaff,
andhisrequestsformoremodern
armamentsfellondeafearsas
Londongavehigherprioritytothe
fightinginEuropeandNorth
Africa.
Brooke-Popham’s relations
with the press were poor, especial-
ly with American journalists, and
there was considerable backbiting
among the British resident officials.
Life magazine published a July
1941 cover story describing him
as “exquisitely English—tough,
tactful, thoughtful, and fond of
flowers.” Though he met his social
and official duties, Brooke-Popham
did himself no favors by earning aBOOKS, ARTS, AND CURIOSITIES