Memory 245in a kind of automatic encoding (Kvavilashvili et al., 2009; Mandler, 1967; Schneider et al.,
1984). People unconsciously notice and seem able to remember a lot of things, such as the
passage of time, knowledge of physical space, and frequency of events. For example, a
person might make no effort to remember how many times cars have passed down the
street but when asked can give an answer of “often,” “more than usual,” or “hardly any.”
A special kind of automatic encoding takes place when an unexpected event or
episode in a person’s life has strong emotional associations, such as fear, horror, or joy.
Memories of highly emotional events can often seem vivid and detailed, as if the person’s
mind took a “flash picture” of the moment in time. These kinds of memories are called
flashbulb memories (Hirst & Phelps, 2016; Kraha & Boals, 2014; Neisser, 1982; Neisser &
Harsch, 1992; Winningham et al., 2000).
Many people share certain flashbulb memories. People of the “baby boomer”
generation remember exactly where they were when the news came that President
John F. Kennedy had been shot or the moment that Neil Armstrong first stepped on
the surface of the moon. Younger generations may remember the horrific events of
September 11, 2001, and the disastrous Hurricane Katrina. But personal flashbulb
memories also exist. These memories tend to be major positive or negative emotional
events, such as the first date, graduation, an embarrassing event, or a particularly
memorable birthday party.
Why do flashbulb memories seem so vivid and exact? The answer lies in the emo-
tions felt at the time of the event. Emotional reactions stimulate the release of hormones
that have been shown to enhance the formation of long-term memories ( Dolcos et al.,
2005; McEwen, 2000; McGaugh, 2004; Sharot et al., 2004). But is this kind of memory
really all that accurate? Although some researchers have found evidence for a high
degree of accuracy in flashbulb memories of major events, such as the reelection of
President Barack Obama in November 2012 or the tragic death of actor and comedian
Robin Williams in 2014, others have found that while flashbulb memories are often con-
vincingly real, they are just as subject to decay and alterations over time as other kinds
of memories ( Neisser & Harsch, 1992). In fact, memory of highly stressful events such as
experiencing a crime has been shown to be less accurate than other memories (Loftus,
1975). Apparently, no memories are completely accurate after the passage of time. The
next section will discuss some of the reasons for faulty memories.
THE RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF LONG-TERM MEMORY RETRIEVAL: HOW
RELIABLE ARE MEMORIES?
6.9 Explain how the constructive processing view of memory retrieval accounts
for forgetting and inaccuracies in memory.
I think my memory is pretty good, but my brother and I often
have arguments about things that happened when we were kids.
Why don’t we have the same exact memories? We were both there!People tend to assume that their memories are accurate when, in fact, memories are
revised, edited, and altered on an almost continuous basis. The reason for the changes
that occur in memory has to do with the way in which memories are formed as well as
how they are retrieved.
CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSING OF MEMORIES Many people have the idea that when
they recall a memory, they are recalling it as if it were an “instant replay.” As new
memories are created in LTM, old memories can get “lost,” but they are more likely to
be changed or altered in some way (Baddeley, 1988). In reality, memories (including
those very vivid flashbulb memories) are never quite accurate, and the more time that
passes, the more inaccuracies creep in. The early twentieth-century memory schema
automatic encoding
tendency of certain kinds of informa-
tion to enter longterm memory with
little or no effortful encoding.flashbulb memories
type of automatic encoding that
occurs because an unexpected event
has strong emotional associations for
the person remembering it.Robin Williams died on August 11, 2014.
His suicide shocked a multitude of fans and
admirers. Events like this are so emotional
for many people that the memories for the
event are stored automatically, as if the mind
had taken a “flash” picture of that moment
in time. Such “flashbulb” memories seem to
be very accurate but are actually no more
accurate than any other memory.