306 CHAPTER 7
In one study, it was found that for a group of individuals with schizophrenia, computerized
cognitive exercises that placed increasing demands on auditory perception (a foundational
skill) were beneficial (M. Fisher et al., 2009). Those same individuals later demonstrated
significant progress in verbal working memory and global cognition tasks (higher-level
skills). Although the cognitive exercise group originally received daily training for 10 weeks,
when some participants were studied 6 months later, the researchers found that some of
the gains were still evident and that gains overall were positively correlated with improved
quality of life at the 6-month assessment point (Fisher et al., 2009). However, a more
recent study has suggested that computerized attention, memory, and executive training
for individuals with schizophrenia may improve performance on training tasks, but these
improvements do not transfer to other measures or real-life situations (Gomar et al., 2015).
Clinical populations aside, some research suggests challenging, adaptive training in
working memory may improve cognitive skills and fluid intelligence in both young and older
adults (Au et al., 2015; Jaeggi et al., 2008; Karbach & Verhaeghen, 2014). Other research-
ers suggest training in working memory may improve working memory capacity on related
tasks, but on measures of fluid intelligence, these improvements do not generalize ( Harrison
et al., 2013). As you can probably tell, there is still a lot of debate on the possible efficacy of
cognitive training in general. Despite some studies being supportive of such efforts, conflict-
ing findings suggest working memory training is not effective, and little evidence exists that
any such training improves intelligence (Melby-Lervag & Hulme, 2016, 2015; Redick, 2015).
So while researchers continue to investigate the possible outcomes of cognitive train-
ing, what else can you do more generally to benefit your brain and mental health? Exercise!
And this time, we are referring to physical exercise. Physical activity and specifically aerobic
fitness has repeatedly been demonstrated to be associated with improved cognitive func-
tion across the life span. A physically active lifestyle and greater aerobic fitness has been
implicated with better executive control and memory processes in preadolescent children
(Chaddock et al., 2010; Hillman et al., 2009), better educational outcomes later in life and
improved affect and visuospatial memory in young adults (Åberg et al., 2009; Stroth et al.,
2009), increased hippocampal volume (associated with better memory) in elderly adults
(Erickson et al., 2009), and as a useful intervention in a group of individuals at high risk of
cognitive decline or impairment, especially for females in the group (Baker et al., 2010).
At least one possible benefit of regular aerobic activity is promoting or maintaining func-
tional connectivity among key brain areas of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes (Voss
et al., 2010). The increases in oxygen and blood flow to the brain play key roles. Other ben-
efits include increased levels of mood-related neurotransmitters, including serotonin, nor-
epinephrine, and dopamine, along with neurogenesis in specific brain areas including the
hippocampus (Ratey & Hagerman, 2008). Increased myelination of hippocampal neurons has
been found to occur after only 6 weeks of aerobic exercise in a group of middle-aged adults
(Thomas et al., 2015). However, these results were temporary, returning to pre-exercise levels
after 6 weeks of not exercising. In other words, keep moving!
So instead of “use it or lose it,” perhaps a better saying to keep in mind is “what is
good for the heart or body is also good for the mind.”
Questions for Further Discussion
- Aside from those involving working memory, what other kinds of focused mental exer-
cises might help keep the brain fit?
- Should doctors suggest aerobic exercise for their patients interested in maintaining or
improving their cognitive functions? What about psychologists working with individu-
als who have mood or anxiety disorders or clients with attention problems?
- Based on this information, what might the implications be for schools that are reducing or
eliminating their physical education requirements? What about college students who may
experience a decrease in physical activity as compared to when they were in high school?
