Psychology2016

346 CHAPTER 8

timid, withdrawn, and resentful. As teenagers, they will very often rebel against parental

authority in very negative and self-destructive ways, such as delinquency (criminal acts

committed by minor children), drug use, or premarital sex (Baumrind, 1991, 2005; Sled-

dens et al., 2011).

Permissive parenting occurs when parents put very few demands on their children

for behavior. Permissive neglectful parents simply aren’t involved with their children,

ignoring them and allowing them to do whatever they want, until it interferes with what

the parent wants. At that point, this relationship may become an abusive one. Permis-

sive indulgent parents seem to be too involved with their children, allowing their “little

angels” to behave in any way they wish, refusing to set limits on the child’s behavior or

to require any kind of obedience. Children from both kinds of permissive parenting tend

to be selfish, immature, dependent, lacking in social skills, and unpopular with peers

(Baumrind, 1991, 2005; Dwairy, 2004; Sleddens et al., 2011).

Authoritative parenting involves combining firm limits on behavior with love,

warmth, affection, respect, and a willingness to listen to the child’s point of view. Author-

itative parents are more democratic, allowing the child to have some input into the for-

mation of rules but still maintaining the role of final decision maker. Punishment tends to

be nonphysical, such as restrictions, time-out, or loss of privileges. Authoritative parents

set limits that are clear and understandable, and when a child crosses the limits, they

allow an explanation and then agree upon the right way to handle the situation. Children

raised in this style of parenting tend to be self-reliant and independent (Baumrind, 1991,

2005; Dwairy, 2004; Sleddens et al., 2011; Sorkhabi, 2005; Underwood et al., 2009).

ERIKSON’S EGO INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR: DEALING WITH MORTALITY As people

enter the stage known as late adulthood, life becomes more urgent as the realities of

physical aging and the approaching end of life become harder and harder to ignore.

Erikson (1980) believed that at this time, people look back on the life they have lived in

a process called a life review. In the life review people must deal with mistakes, regrets,

and unfinished business. If people can look back and feel that their lives were rela-

tively full and are able to come to terms with regrets and losses, then a feeling of ego

integrity or wholeness results. Integrity is the final completion of the identity, or ego.

If people have many regrets and lots of unfinished business, they feel despair, a sense

of deep regret over things that will never be accomplished because time has run out.

Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging

8.15 Compare and contrast four theories of why aging occurs.

Why do people age? What makes us go through so many

physical changes?

There are a number of theories of why people physically age. Some theories of physical

aging point to biological changes in cellular structure, whereas others focus on the influ-

ence of external stresses on body tissues and functioning.

CELLULAR-CLOCK THEORY One of the biologically based theories is the cellular-clock

theory (Hayflick, 1977). In this theory, cells are limited in the number of times they can

reproduce to repair damage. Evidence for this theory is the existence of telomeres, struc-

tures on the ends of chromosomes that shorten each time a cell reproduces ( Martin &

Buckwalter, 2001). When telomeres are too short, cells cannot reproduce and damage

accumulates, resulting in the effects of aging. (Sounds almost like what happens when

the warranty is up on a car, doesn’t it?)

WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORY The theory that points to outside influences such as stress,

physical exertion, and bodily damage is known as the wear-and-tear theory of aging. In

permissive parenting
style of Rarenting in which Rarent
maMes few if any demands on
a childos Dehavior.

permissive neglectful
Rermissive Rarenting in which Rarent
is uninvolved with child or childos
Dehavior.

permissive indulgent
Rermissive Rarenting in which Rarent
is so involved that children are
allowed to Dehave without set limits.

authoritative parenting
style of Rarenting in which Rarent
comDines warmth and affection with
firm limits on a childos Dehavior.

ego integrity
sense of wholeness that comes from
having lived a full life Rossessing the
aDility to let go of regrets the final
comRletion of the ego.