How the Research Is Empirically Examined 125
War. Following this conflict, these two German states promised to con-
trol the dispute concerning Schleswig-Holstein. Once the war was over, a
destructive struggle started between Prussia and Austria over the control
of the occupied territories. The Austro-Prussian conflict that developed
and the shared victory over much weaker Denmark reached its evident
end in late 1865 with the signing of the Gastein Convention. The conven-
tion was consistent with some of Prussia’s aspirations while protecting
and safeguarding Austrian prestige and control within the German con-
federation. However, after many months it was found that the agreement
did not work. The first subject was about Bismarck’s concern that the Aus-
trian right to manage Holstein was akin to sovereignty over the territory.
Such an outcome frustrated his immediate and long-term ambitions con-
cerning the federation.
To rectify the situation from its own perspective, Prussia looked for
authority over Holstein to a certain extent by violating the Gastein Con-
vention. Austria considered expanding its control over Holstein, which
also violated the Gastein Convention.^139 Prussia’s main demand was sta-
tus of honor within the leadership of Germany.
The Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871)This war was fought between France and Prussia and its allies, which
united after the war and became Germany.^140 Based on the argument that
the system before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War was multipo-
lar, Prussia in that period had not yet risen to potential hegemon status
in the system, which it enjoyed in the decades after its victory in that war
until the years preceding the outbreak of the First World War. Prussia’s
status at that time led Austria and France to pass the buck to each other.^141
Each of them believed that the other country could defeat Prussia unaided
and they abstained from joining forces to prevent the Prussian victories
against them—Prussia’s victory against Austria in 1866 and against France
in 1870. Prussia’s resulting status led Great Britain and Russia to stand
noncommittal. They effectively wanted a stronger Prussia—for Britain for
counterbalancing France and Russia, for Russia for counterbalancing Aus-
tria and France.^142
The Multipolar System, 1910–1945This system was the first that covered the whole world. During it, 13
wars were fought involving at least one of the seven polar powers that
constituted it: the United States, Russia (later to be the Soviet Union), Ger-
many, Great Britain, France, Japan, and Italy. Two wars were of greater
importance than the rest: World Wars One (1914–1918) and Two (1939–
1945). The last war effectively indicated the end of the multipolar system
and the beginning of the bipolar system that was formed after it.