ed.,Qing jingshi wenbian, 2 : 884 b– 885 b, 888 b, 895 a– 898 a, 918 a, 950 b,
951 a, 961 b.
55 “Legalism”is a problematic term but has been retained here because of its
persistent common usage. For a critical analysis, see Kidder Smith,“Sima Tan
and the Invention of Daoism,‘Legalism,’et cetera,” 129 – 56. For discussions
of topics related to legalism and early agrarian thought, see Graham,“The
Nung-chia‘School of the Tillers’,” 66 – 100 ; Wang Zhennian,“Fajia zhengzhi
sixiang,” 209 – 13 ; Zhang Linxiang,“ 20 shijiShangjunshuyanjiu shuping,”
10 – 14.
56 Shangjunshu zhuyi, 18 , 23 , 31. A slightly different translation can be found in
Elvin,“Unsustainable Growth,” 19. For an English translation of the text, see
Duyvendak,The Book of Lord Shang.
57 Xu Guangqi,Nongzheng quanshu, 124 – 25 , translated, with slight variation,
in Vermeer,“Exploitation of New Farmland,” 233.
58 Chen Jian,“‘Jingshen zhongnongzhuyi’ 99 – 104 ; Zhang Jingshu,“Nongye
jiaoyu sixiang tanxi,” 124 – 27 ; Niu Yinshuan et al.,“Fajia‘zhongnong’six-
iang tanxi,” 59 – 61.
59 See, for example, Yan Li,“Fajia sixiang zai Zhongguo,” 112 – 13 ; Chen Song,
“Lun Songdai shidafu jiecent falüe sixiang,” 116 – 25.
60 Ge Quansheng, ed.,Qingdai zouzhe huibian,QL 15 / 11 / 12 , 118.
61 Ge Quansheng, ed.,Qingdai zouzhe huibian,QL 9 / 4 / 6 , 81.
62 Wang Jiange,“Qingdai Huabei de huangzai,” 100 – 107 ; Shin-Yi Hsu,“The
Cultural Ecology of the Locust Cult,” 731 – 52 ; Sun Jiagan,Sun Wending Gong
zoushu, 1 : 497 – 502 ; Ge Quansheng, ed.,Qingdai zouzhe huibian,QL 6 / 3 / 19 , 49.
63 Tao Zhu,Tao Wen Yi Gong (Zhu) ji, 2 : 891 – 95.
64 QSL 12 / 11 / 5 , 4 : 580 a–b.
65 QSL,KX 46 / 6 / 28 , 6 : 303 a–b, KX 51 / 4 / 18 , 478 a, KX 55 /ic 3 / 22 , 629 a– 30 a.
Such absolute statements are qualified by ongoing clearance of marginal land
(literally“land between the cracks,”xidi) within China proper long after the
emperor’s reign, even in such primordial agricultural areas such as Shaanxi;
Ge Quansheng, ed.,Qingdai zouzhe huibian,QL 6 / 4 / 26 , 51. However, as
Chapter 5 argues,the sustainable productivity of such land, which usually
required years of subsidy, is questionable.
66 Yongzhengchao Manwen zhupi, no. 1474 , 1 : 816 – 17 ; Li Xu,Li Xu zouzhe,
182 , 233 , cited in Zhang Yan,Qingdai Jingji Jianshi, 344 ; Myers and Wang,
“Economic Developments, 1644 – 1800 ,” 568 – 69 , 611 – 12 , 641 – 45 ; Marks,
“It Never Used to Snow,” 445. Requests from Mongol elites to put bannermen
to work cultivating arablefields around pastures were by no means discour-
aged. One such request in 1732 from Khorchin, Aukhan, Ongni’ud, Tümed,
and Kharachin nobility was granted without any deliberation;Yongzheng-
chao Manwen zhupi, no. 4137 , 2 : 2145.
67 Bray,Agriculture, 493 – 95 ; Ping-Ti Ho,“Early-Ripening Rice,” 200 , 201 ,
210 , 216 – 17. For an overview of Chinese scholarship on New World crops,
see Cao Ling,“Ming Qing Meizhou liangshi zuowu,” 95 – 103.
68 Shukla,“Lactose Intolerance in Health and Disease,” 66 – 70 ; Zheng Jiaju
et al.,“Lactose Malabsorption,” 284 – 86 ; Zheng and Rosenberg,“Lactose
Malabsorption,” 1 – 6.
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