252 sØrensen
closely at what would be the more useful way of describing what we shall be
dealing with here.
As for the use of terminology, we need to be relatively precise when defining
the religious phenomena behind ‘Esoteric Buddhism,’ otherwise we run the
risk of obfuscating the issue under discussion. As we progress, the importance
of terminological precision will become increasingly obvious.
The designators ‘Esoteric Buddhism,’ ‘Vajrayāna,’ ‘Tantra’ and ‘Guhyavāda’
should be used neither indiscriminately nor interchangeably. The reason for
this is, that while they can be used to describe phenomena which are closely
related, religiously as well as historically, each designator in fact covers differ-
ent aspects of the same religious formation. ‘Esoteric Buddhism’ as used here is
a modern construct loosely based on the Chinese concept of mijiao (密教, lit.
‘secret teaching’). As such it signifies a distinct form of Mahāyāna Buddhism,
a religious and doctrinal tradition as it were, on a par with mādhyamika,
yogācāra, tathāgatagarbha, etc. However, in contrast to these philosophical
systems of thought, the primary concern of Esoteric Buddhism is the practical
effectuation and actualisation of divine power brought into play through vari-
ous forms of ritual manipulation, primarily through the use of spells/mantras,
hand gestures (Skt. mudrās), altars/maṇḍalas, fire ritual (Skt. homa), special
offerings, special taboos, etc.6
Historically it makes sense to speak of the early phase of Esoteric Buddhism
as ‘proto-Esoteric Buddhism’ as a way of designating the secondary presence of
various types of ritual magic, especially the use of spells/dhāraṇīs in Mahāyāna
sūtras. Furthermore, this term is useful for describing those forms of early
Esoteric Buddhism that developed in China as expressed in various apocry-
phal scriptures from the period Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–581,
南北朝). One might also apply the term ‘Dhāraṇī Buddhism’ for this phase of
Esoteric Buddhism, referring to the class of scriptures referred to as ‘dhāraṇī-
sūtras.’ This is a distinct type of Mahāyāna scriptures in which spells play a
primary role, and as such it differs from that in which the sūtras only feature
6 From the perspective of the Chinese sources, see Michel Strickmann, Chinese Magical
Medicine, ed. Bernard Faure (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002). For specific practices,
see Charles D. Orzech and Henrik H. Sørensen, “Mudrā, Mantra and Maṇḍala,” in Esoteric
Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia, ed. Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H. Sørensen, Richard K.
Payne (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 76 –89; Richard K. Payne and Charles D. Orzech, “Homa,” in Esoteric
Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia, ed. Charles D. Orzech, Henrik H. Sørensen, Richard K.
Payne (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 133–140. See also Henrik H. Sørensen, “Spells and Magical Practices
as Reflected in the Early Chinese Buddhist Sources (c. 300–600 CE) and their Implications for
the Rise and Development of Esoteric Buddhism.” In Chinese and Tibetan Tantric Buddhism,
ed. Meir Shahar and Yael Bentor (forthcoming, 2016).