269
their empires against colonized
populations eager for freedom. The
newly independent nations became
an ideological and even, at times,
military battleground between the
capitalist and communist systems.
In the end, the issue was settled
by economics. Capitalism showed
its ability to generate economic
growth on a vast scale, creating a
booming consumer society in more
advanced countries. In contrast,
by the 1980s communist countries
confronted economic stagnation
and rising popular discontent. With
great rapidity, communist regimes
collapsed in the Soviet bloc, while
communist China later became a
powerhouse of capitalism.
In the wake of communism, the
political scientist Francis Fukuyama
coined the expression the “end of
history” and argued that Westernliberal democracy was “the only
game in town.” Certainly, by the end
of the 20th century liberalism was
surfing a wave: in 1950, only a few
nations in Europe were democracies;
50 years later, all of them were.Progress and pessimism
From the 1960s, hotly contested
campaigns for civil rights had
progressed liberal ideals in areas
such as racial equality and gender
politics. Growing prosperity was
also impressive. In Latin America
and much of Asia, living standards
had risen dramatically by the early
21st century. Despite the world’s
population increasing on a huge
scale—from under 2 billion in 1914
to over 7 billion one century later—
food supplies had not run out, as
had once been predicted by many.
Restricting environmental damagewas recognized as a major challenge
for the future, a problem generated
by humanity’s growth and success.
Indeed, human progress in the
20th century was remarkable, from
rising literacy and life expectancy
to the development of air and space
travel and computers. Yet there was
no outbreak of general optimism.
Environmental issues aside, it was
all too evident that the future held
potential dangers: the unsettled
politics of the Middle East, sucking
major powers into wars; brutal acts
of terrorism; economic inequality
generating mass migration; financial
instability and market breakdown;
epidemics spread by global travel—
all provided plenty of material for
pessimists. History offered no solid
ground for predictions, suggesting
only that the unexpected was to
be expected. ■THE MODERN WORLD
1956
1957
1962 1989 2001
1965 1991 2011
Egyptian leader Nasser declares
the nationalization of the Suez
Canal. Britain, France, and
Israel invade Egypt, the US
imposes a ceasefire, and the
allies withdraw.Kwame Nkrumah wins
Ghanaian independence
from Britain through
peaceful means. By the
1970s, most countries in
Africa are independent.For 13 days the world is
under the threat of nuclear
war between Cuba and the
US, during the Cuban Missile
Crisis. The dispute is resolved
by diplomacy.The East German
government lifts travel
restrictions and
thousands of people tear
down the Berlin Wall;
communism collapses.On September 11,
Islamic extremists
launch a major
terrorist attack on
the US. Almost 3,000
people are killed.The US sends troops
to South Vietnam to
prevent the spread of
communism and is
embroiled in the war
for nine years.The first website (“World
Wide Web”) goes live,
built by British computer
scientist Tim Berners-
Lee to enable academics
to share information.The world’s population
exceeds 7 billion; the global
challenge is to improve
living standards
without destroying
the environment.US_268-269_Ch_6_intro.indd 269 15/02/2016 16:44