23 So for instance A.H.M. Jones, ‘The caste system in the Roman empire’, in Brunt, ed., The
Roman Economy, 396–418; id., ‘The Roman colonate’, in ibid., 293–307.
24 CJ XI.48.21.1; 50.2.3; 52.1.1; Grey, art. cit., 172–73.
25 See Sirks, art. cit., 143.
26 See R. MacMullen, ‘Judicial savagery in the Roman empire’, Chiron 16 (1986), 147–66.
27 On this see Peter Brown, Poverty and Leadership in the Later Roman Empire (Hanover, NH:
University Press of New England, 2002); almsgiving: Richard Finn, Almsgiving in the later
Roman Empire: Christian Promotion and Practice (313–450) (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2006); above, Chapter 3.
28 For the post-Roman west see Peter Heather, ‘State, lordship and community in the west
(c. AD 400–600)’, in Cambridge Ancient History XIV, 437–68. Chris Wickham, ‘The other
transition: from the ancient world to feudalism’, Past and Present 103 (1984), 3–36, is a classic
discussion of transition.
29 See John Haldon, ‘Economy and administration: how did the empire work?’, in Rousseau,
ed., A Companion to Late Antiquity, 28–59, at 53.
30 CJ I.55.8, 11; Jones, Later Roman Empire I, 758 (in a section headed ‘The decline of the coun-
cils’). See J.H.W.G. Liebeschuetz, The Decline and Fall of the Roman City (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2001), chap. 3, ‘Post-curial civic government’, 104–36 and further below.
31 De Mag. I.28.
32 Jones, Later Roman Empire I, 748; see 740–57.
33 Eusebius, Life of Constantine IV.1; see Peter Heather, ‘New men for new Constantines? Cre-
ating an imperial elite in the eastern Mediterranean’, in Paul Magdalino, ed., New Constan-
tines (Aldershot: Variorum, 1994), 1–10, also discussing the curial class and the new offi ce-
holding bureaucracy (with obvious parallels with the Augustan regime).
34 For examples, and for the geographical spread of senatorial landowning, see Wickham,
Framing the Early Middle Ages, 162–4.
35 Hist. 14.6, 28.4.
36 For discussion, see Ward-Perkins, Cambridge Ancient History XIV, 369–77, discussing e.g.
C.R. Whittaker, ‘Late Roman trade and traders’, in P. Garnsey, K. Hopkins and C.R. Whit-
taker, eds, Trade in the Ancient Economy (London: Chatto and Windus, 1983), 163–81; further
below.
37 See Banaji, Agrarian Change in Late Antiquity and Sarris, Economy and Society in the Age of Jus-
tinin, and see below; cf. Sarris, 197 (of the evidence from papyri): ‘production on the great
estates was highly commodifi ed: labour was rationally and fl exibly organised, with workers
being directed between estate properties; a certain amount of specialisation would appear
to have characterised the holdings which the estate comprised, and the surplus produced by
the in-hand seems to have been marketed, presumably via the various estate-owned shops
and warehouses attested in the sources. Both conceptually and practically, estate manage-
ment was highly monetised.’
38 Peter Brown, ‘Aspects of the Christianization of the Roman aristocracy’, Journal of Roman
Studies 51 (1961), 1–11, is still basic.
39 So too Ramsay MacMullen, Corruption and the Decline of Rome (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1988).
40 Christopher Kelly, Ruling the Later Roman Empire (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Har-
vard University Press, 2004), discusses the nuances and complexities of the Late Roman
system.
41 For the oath see C. Pazdernik, ‘The trembling of Cain: religious power and institutional
culture in Justinianic oath-making’, in Andrew Cain and Noel Lenski, eds., The Power of Reli-
gion in Late Antiquity (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 143–54, and for payment for clergy offi ces
see Sabine R. Huebner, ‘Currencies of power: the venality of offi ces in the Later Roman
Empire’, ibid., 167–79.
42 Nov. 6 (535); Nov. 123 (546).
43 Procopius, Secret History, 21.9f.; Nov. 49.1: governors were now to be selected by the bish-
ops, possessores and prominent local residents. The Synecdemus of Hierocles, a document in
NOTES TO CHAPTER 4