The \'German Spirit\' in the Ottoman and Turkish Army, 1908-1938. A History of Military Knowledge Transfer - Gerhard Grüßhaber

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onelalsoprovidedadviceinhisnumerouscontributionsfortheOGD’speriodi-
cal.Despitetheseefforts,theorganizationwasnotdestinedtosucceedunderthe
conditionsofwar.Nonetheless,itpavedthewayforaTurkishsuccessorassoci-
ationofthesametype,whichwasconceptualizedwiththeassistanceofCarl
Diemin 1933 .Diem,acivilian‘veteran’oftheBJDmovement,haddevelopeda
likingforGoltz’‘nationinarms’conceptduringhismilitaryserviceinWorld
WarI.WhileinthecaseofboththeBJDandOGD,themilitarysidedominated,
therepublicanTurkishyouthassociationbecameaciviliancontrolledinstru-
mentservingdomesticpoliticalandsubordinatedmilitaryneedsoftheyoung
republic.TheTurkishsidehadenteredalearningprocessregardingtheapplic-
abilityofGermanmodelsanddidnotintendtointroduceapoorandinadequate
copy,butratheragenuinemodelderivedfromseveralforeignsourcesofinspi-
ration.Nevertheless,the 1933 proposalbyCarlDiemhadanimpactonaTurkish
lawin1 93 8.
TurkishveteranofficersdistancedthemselvesfromtheformerGermanally
eventhoughtheyadmittedthattherehadbeentheneedforGermanassistance
inreformingtheOttomanarmy.AformerOttomanofficerwhohadfoughtalong-
sidetheGermansinPalestine,referredtothecontemporaryleadingnation’scon-
tributionstotheTurkishnationbuildingproject,bystatingthat“[i]tisnotour
claimto[...]Germanize,buttocreatetheidealTurkey.”³
Forthearmedforcesoftherepublic,theGermanReichswehrandWehr-
machtremainedanimportantrolemodelintermsofaselectiveappropriation
ofmilitaryknowledge.Inaddition,theTurkishmilitaryleadershipexpanded
thecircleoffurthersourcesofmilitaryinspiration.Oneofthemwasthedevel-
opmentofanationalschoolformilitaryhistorywritinginordertomakeuse
oftherichcombatexperiencesofthe 1911 – 1922 conflicts.Nevertheless,between
1925 and 1939 severaldozenGermanofficersservedasinstructorsintheTurkish
militaryacademyandotherhighertrainingfacilities.Asaconsequenceofbad
wartimeexperiences,solelyretiredofficerswerehiredandtheyreceivedno
powerofcommandwithintheTurkisharmedforces.Similarlytothesmallnum-
bersofTurkishofficersthatservedintheGermanarmyduringthe 1920 sand
19 30s,theseGermaninstructorswereimportantmediatorsofknowledgebe-
tweenbothcountries.
Notwithstanding,theTurkishpoliticalleadershiphadlearneditsmainles-
sonfromthepastalliancewithImperialGermanyandabstainedfromentering
theSecondWorldWarontheGermanside.Germanpoliticalandmilitaryleader-


FalihRıfkıAtay,Moskova-Roma[Moscow-Rome](Istanbul:MuallimAhmetHalitMatbaası,
19 32), 19.


242 5Conclusion

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