contributiontotheformationoftheTurkisharmedforceswasmuchmorelimited
after1918.NationalSocialistrule,withitsexpansiveforeignpolicy,eventually
leadtoestrangementoftheTurkishpoliticaleliteandtotheTurkishneutrality
duringtheSecondWorldWar.
StudyOutline
InChapter2theappropriationoftheGermanmindsetwillbetracedbacktothe
Germanmilitarymissionbetween 1882 and 1895 ,inparticular,totheinstructions
intheOttomanmilitaryacademyandtoColmarvonderGoltz’sinfluentialbook,
TheNationinArms.ThesideoftheOttoman/Turkishofficers,besidesitsperson-
alcontactwithGermaninstructors,adaptedmilitaryknowledgethroughthe
readingofGermanworksandtheofficial(partial)adoptionoftranslatedGerman
serviceregulations.Inaddition,theOttoman/TurkishofficerssenttoGermany
forfurthertrainingappropriatedpartsoftheGermanWeltanschauungandthe
philosophyofhistoryoftheirGerman‘brothersinarms’.⁹²TheGermanofficers
whoservedasinstructorsandobserversduringtheBalkanWarsof1912/ 13 point-
edtothelessonsoftheseconflictsforthecomingwarinCentralEurope.The
majorpointofconcernfortheGermanmilitaryobserverswasthepoorperform-
anceoftheOttomanforcesthathadfoughtinaccordancewithGermanfieldreg-
ulations.⁹³EspeciallyduringtheFirstWorldWaraninstitutionalmergecanbe
statedforbotharmiesontheOttomantheatreofwar.NotonlydidGerman
commandersjointheleadingOttomanforcesbutalsoGermanorganizational
featureswereadopted.However,itshouldbeunderlinedherethattheGerman
armywasnottheonlyrolemodelfortheOttomans.⁹⁴
Theseprocessescontinuedafter 1918 throughtheactivitiesofGermanin-
structorsinTurkishmilitaryacademiesuntil 1938 /39.Thereforethisstudyin-
cludestheestatesandmemoirsoftheofficerspreviouslyneglectedbyresearch.
ŞefikOkday,DerletzteGroßwesirundseinepreußischenSöhne(Göttingen,Zürich:Muster-
Schmidt,1991);EkremRüstüAkömer,“AusdemTagebucheinesWaffenbruders,”inTürkenin
Berlin 1871 – 1945:EineMetropoleindenErinnerungenosmanischerundtürkischerZeitzeugen,
ed.IngeborgBöer(Berlin:WalterdeGruyter, 2002 ), 79 – 90.
OttovonLossow,“Balkankrieg1912/ 13 .BerichtedesbayerischenOberstleutnantsOttovon
LossowausdemtürkischenKrieg1912/ 13 ,”BayHStAIVGS 26 0;HansRohde,UnsereGefechts-
vorschriftenundderBalkankrieg(Berlin:Eisenschmidt,1915).
Römer,MilitärhilfefürdasOsmanischeReich,1 46 – 14 8;HandanNezirAkmeşe,“TheJapa-
neseNationinArms:ARoleModelforMilitaristNationalismintheOttomanArmy, 1905 –
1915 ,”inTheIslamicMiddleEastandJapan:Perceptions,Aspirations,andtheBirthofIntra-
AsianModernity,ed.RenéeWorringer(Princeton:Wiener,2 00 7), 63 – 90.
22 1Introduction