570 Bibliographic EssayFor a general survey of the Islamic perspective on international law (though with
little attention to its historical development), see Ahmed Rechid, “L’Islam et le droit
des gens,” 60 RdC 371– 506 (1937). For a more recent treatment, in En glish, see Majid
Khadduri, War and Peace in the Law of Islam (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955).
On freedom of trade in Islamic law, see Haniff Ahamat, “Th e Position of Siyar on Free
Trade: A Historico- Legal Analysis,” 12 JHIL 307– 27 (2010). On the laws of war, see
John Kelsay, “Al- Shaybani and the Islamic Law of War,” 2 J. Military Ethics 63– 75
(2003). For a thorough treatment of banditry, insurgency, and various forms of inter-
nal strife in Islamic law, see Khaled Abou El Fadl, Rebellion and Violence in Islamic
Law (Cambridge University Press, 2001). On the all- too- fashionable subject of jihad,
an indispensable source is Reuven Firestone, Jihad: Th e Origin of Holy War in Islam
(Oxford University Press, 1999). A more wide- ranging treatment in terms of time
coverage, bringing the subject up to the present day, is Richard Bonney, Jihad: From
Qur’an to Bin Laden (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). Also highly useful is Patricia Crone,
God’s Rule: Government and Islam (Columbia University Press, 2004), 362– 85. In ad-
dition, see Rudolph Peters, Islam and Colonialism: Th e Doctrine of Jihad in Modern
History (Mouton, 1979).
On the signifi cance and impact of Innocent IV for the formation of natural law at-
titudes toward pagan and infi del rulers, an excellent source is James Muldoon, Popes,
Lawyers, and Infi dels: Th e Church and the Non- Christian World 1250– 1550 (Liverpool
University Press, 1970), 29– 48. A general history of the Crusades that devotes appro-
priate attention to legal issues is Christopher Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of
the Crusades (Penguin, 2006). Specifi cally on the application of just- war doctrine to
crusading, see Frederick H. Russell, Th e Just War in the Middle Ages (Ca mbridge Univer-
sity Press, 1975), 195– 212. On the role of canon law in crusading, see James A. Brundage,
Medieval Canon Law and the Crusader (University of Wisconsin Press, 1969). For the
leading work on Eu ro pe an attempts to implement and enforce trading bans against Mus-
lims, see Eliyahu Ashtor, Levant Trade in the Later Middle Ages (Prince ton University
Press, 1983), 17– 63.
On the litigation between the Teutonic Knights and the Polish- Lithuanian King-
dom at the Council of Constance, see Muldoon, Popes, Lawyers, and Infi dels, 107– 19;
Eric Christiansen, Th e Northern Crusades (Penguin, 1980), 227– 41; and Norman
Housley, Th e Later Crusades, 1274– 1580: From Lyons to Alcazar (Oxford University
Press, 1992), 358– 65. On Vladimiri in par tic u lar, see C. H. Alexandrowicz, “Paulus
Vladimiri and the Development of the Doctrine of Coexistence of Christian and Non-
Christian Countries,” 39 BYBIL 441– 48 (1963).
Imperialism is one of the most elusive of subjects— at the same time, so important
and widespread but also covered only patchily in scholarly writing. For useful general
works on the subject, see Richard Kroeber, Empire (Cambridge University Press,
1961); and Anthony Pagden, Peoples and Empires: Eu ro pe ans and the Rest of the World,
from Antiquity to the Present (Phoenix Press, 2001). On acquisition of colonial terri-
tory, see generally Andrew Fitzmaurice, “Discovery, Conquest, and Occupation of