586 Bibliographic Essay87– 90. On spheres of infl uence, see John Westlake, International Law (vol. 1, 2nd ed.;
Cambridge University Press, 1910), 130– 35; and Geddes W. Rutherford, “Spheres of
Infl uence: An Aspect of Semi- Sovereignty,” 20 AJIL 300– 25 (1926).
On China’s entry into contact with the Western powers in the nineteenth century,
the leading work is Rune Svarverud, International Law as World Order in Late Impe-
rial China: Translation, Reception and Discourse, 1847– 1911 (Brill, 2007). See also
Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, China’s Entrance into the Family of Nations: Th e Diplomatic
Pha se 1858– 1880 (Harvard University Press, 1960); Johnston, Historical Foundations,
578– 90; Yongjin Zhang, “China’s Entry into International Society: Beyond the Stan-
dard of ‘Civilisation,’ ” 17 Rev. Int’l Stud. 3– 16 (1991); Laghmani, Histoire du droit des
gens, 209– 15; and Gerrit W. Gong, “China’s Entry into International Society,” in Bull
and Watson (eds), Expansion of International Society, 171– 83. On its reception of in-
ternational law in par tic u lar, see Shin Kawashima, “China,” in Fassbender and Peters
(ed s.), Oxford Handbook, 451– 74; and Wang Tieya, “International Law in China: His-
torical and Contemporary Perspectives,” 221 RdC 195– 309 (1990), 226– 37. On the
per sis tence of the Chinese tribute system into the nineteenth century, see Mark Man-
call, “Th e Ch’ing Tribute System: An Interpretive Essay,” in John King Fairbank (ed.),
Th e Chinese World Order: Traditional China’s Foreign Relations, 63– 89 (Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 1968).
Th e Japa nese reception of international law is somewhat better covered than its
Chinese counterpart. See Kinji Akashi, “Japa nese ‘Ac cep tance’ of the Eu ro pe an Law
of Nations: A Brief History of International Law in Japan c. 1853– 1900,” in Michael
Stolleis and Masaharu Yanagihara (eds.), East Asian and Eu ro pe an Perspectives on
International Law, 1– 21 (Nomos, 2004); Hidemi Suganami, “Japan’s Entry into Inter-
national Society,” in Bull and Watson (eds.), Expansion of International Society, 185–
99; Gong, Standard of ‘Civilisation,’ 164– 200; and John Peter Stern, Th e Japa nese In-
terpretation of the ‘Law of Nations,’ 1854– 1874 (Prince ton University Press, 1979). On
Nishi Amane in par tic u lar, see Th omas R. H. Havens, Nishi Amane and Modern Japa-
nese Th ought (Prince ton University Press, 1970); and Roger F. Hackett, “Nishi
Amane— A Tokugawa- Meiji Bureaucrat,” 18 J. Asian Stud. 213– 25 (1959).
Extraterritoriality is a largely forgotten and little studied subject. On the Chinese
experience, see William L. Tung, China and the Foreign Powers: Th e Impact of and
Reaction to Unequal Treaties (Oceana, 1970); and Westel W. Willoughby, Foreign
Rights and Interests in China (2nd ed.; Johns Hopkins University Press, 1927). On ex-
traterritoriality in Japan, see F. C. Jones, Extraterritoriality in Japan and the Diplo-
matic Relations Resulting in Its Abolition (Yale University Press, 1931); and Richard T.
Chang, Th e Justice of Western Consular Courts in Nineteenth- Century Japan (Green-
wood Press, 1984). On British consular courts in the Ottoman Empire, see Johannes
Berchtold, Reich un Gerechtigkeit in der Konsulargerichtsbarkeit: Britische Extraterri-
torialität im Osmanischen Reich 1825– 1914 (R. Oldenbourg, 2009).
On international law in Latin America, there is a crying need for fuller study. For a
good start, see H. B. Jacobini, A Study of the Philosophy of International Law as Seen in