tor publishedA Hand to Guide Me, recollections of
the influence of mentoring in the lives of seventy
people, including himself.
Further Reading
Brode, Douglas.Denzel Washington: His Films and Ca-
reer. Secaucus, N.J.: Carol, 1997.
Guerrero, Ed.Framing Blackness: The African Ameri-
can Image in Film. Philadelphia: Temple University
Press, 1993.
Carolyn Anderson
See also Academy Awards; African Americans;
Farrakhan, Louis; Film in the United States; Inde-
pendent films; Lee, Spike;Philadelphia; Race rela-
tions.
Water pollution
Definition Degradation of water quality by
chemical, biological, or thermal agents
The United States had made substantial progress in deal-
ing with traditional forms of water pollution by the 1990’s.
However, the magnitude of this progress was difficult to
measure, as water quality was monitored much less than air
quality. In addition, new forms of water pollution were ap-
pearing. Water quality continued to be a
major environmental issue as the twenti-
eth centur y drew to a close, with little
progress since the late 1980’s.The Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act Amendments of 1972
(FWPCAA) were the basis for federal
regulation of water quality in the
1990’s. Under the legislation, the
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) monitored six forms of pollu-
tion in surface water such as pH or
suspended solids. The emphasis was
on surface water, not groundwater,
so the potential pollution of under-
ground aquifers often received
scant attention. The United States
had made substantial progress in
the previous decade in dealing with
what is known as point pollution—
that is, pollution that comes from an
identifiable source such as an outlet
pipe. Nonpoint pollution—pollution with no identi-
fiable source—remained a continuing problem. By
2000, nitrogen pollution in most watersheds was
nonpoint pollution, primarily agricultural runoff
from fertilizers.
Industrial pollution also remained a major prob-
lem. The lower Mississippi River is the most polluted
major river in the United States. The 150-mile stretch
of the river from Baton Rouge to New Orleans is
known as “Cancer Alley” because of the high inci-
dence of several forms of cancer. Many industrial sites
such as oil refineries and chemical plants are found
along this stretch of the river, along with five hundred
hazardous-waste sites. Although regulations had
tightened discharges from these plants, some chemi-
cal residue from petroleum, pesticides, plastics, syn-
thetic fibers, and organic chemicals continued to en-
ter water courses leading into the Mississippi.
Nationwide, it was difficult to ascertain the level
of water pollution in the 1990’s. The EPA monitored
water quality in only 43 percent of lakes, 19 percent
of river mileage, and 36 percent of estuaries. State
agencies provided some additional coverage, but
the water quality of much of America’s surface water
remained unmonitored. No monitoring was done of
underground aquifers, although many cities relied
on them for water, as did farmers for irrigation.906 Water pollution The Nineties in America
Denzel Washington holds his Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for his role inGloryat
the 1990 Academy Awards. At his side is actor Geena Davis, who presented the award.
(AP/Wide World Photos)