10 continental south asia and the islands
sion, based on ancient sailing directions as well as modern linguistics,
have therefore often been inconclusive. The most ambitious effort
is that of Hirth and Rockhill in their annotated translation of Chao
Ju-kua’sChu-fan chih.^3
Chao Ju-kua was a Maritime Trade Commissioner in the great
port of Ch’üan-chou on the Fu-chien coast, who wrote his account
in the middle of the 13th century. His sources are earlier works and
informants among the seafarers. He lists under their own headings
54 countries and cities.^4 14 of these had a “tributary” relationships
with China and are therefore of special interest to us. Others had
direct or indirect trade connections with China, while the rest was
only known by hearsay.
Hirth and Rockhill, with great ingenuity, have attempted to identi-
fiy the ancient names with modern places. In a number of cases they
obviously are right. In others, they have been too bold.
Let us now list the foreign countries in continental South Asia and
on the islands which had official relations with China between 589
and 1276, and see what can be known about their locations.^5
Chiao-chih, Chiao chou or An-nan: Situated in present northern
Vietnam. In the West, usually called Annam.
Lin-yi or Huan-wang: Situated in present central and southern
Vietnam except its southermost part.
Chan-ch’eng: This was Champa, the successor state of Lin-yi.
To-mien: According to Ts’e-fu yüan-kueip.5025, it was situated south
of Lin-yi, bordering on the sea. It must have been a small country in
present southernmost Vietnam.
Wu-hsün: According to Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao 332:17b, it was situated
at the sea near Champa. It therefore must have been another small
country in present southernmost Vietnam.
P’u-p’o:^6 According to Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao 332:17b, it was situated
at the sea near Champa. It therefore must have been another small
country in present southernmost Vietnam.
(^3) Friedrich Hirth and W.W.Rockhill, Chau Ju-kua on the Chinese and Arab Trade in
the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. For a brief account of the mission in 607, see ibid.
p.8 and note 2. 4
Including Silla, Japan, and the Chinese island of Hai-nan.
(^5) See maps 1 and 2. I am here concerned only with the locations of countries which
have entries in their own rights in the dynastic histories and encyclopaedias. For the
historical times when these states existed or had relations with China see below.
(^6) By Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao called P’u-p’o-chung.