The years from the fall of the Akkadian empire (c. 2193 ) to the beginning of the Neo-
Sumerian period (including the second dynasty of Lagash c. 2150 ) are known as the
Gutian interregnum. Little is known about this time.
WOMEN IN THE SUMERIAN EMPIRE (UR III)
With Ur-Namma (c. 2112 – 2095 ) began the rule of the last Sumerian dynasty, which
ended c. 2004. Numerous publications deal with Neo-Sumerian royal women, priest-
esses, and women textile workers, other women have received less scholarly attention.
With the exception of seals depicting women from different strata of society as wor-
shippers, there are hardly any other images of women aside from statues/statuettes and
several reliefs probably exclusively representing royal women or priestesses. Whether
this was caused by changing views on gender or for other reasons is a matter of
conjecture.
According to an Ur III birth incantation, sexual difference is associated at birth
with gender roles, the boy should become a strong hero and warrior, the girl “sexy”
and a good housewife. A son should be like his father, a girl like her mother, that is,
attractive, smart, moderate, modest, not engage in gossip, nor talk to men, fight, or
linger in public places; girls were also encouraged to keep silent and not to chatter.
As these norms contrast with Akkadian freedoms (although apparently not apprec-
iated by most women), one may ask if Ur III social norms represent a return to Early
Dynastic standards, or if these changed in Neo-Sumerian times. Boys were preferred
over girls, which may have resulted from a shortage of men due to long periods of
warfare.
A major change occurred in the Ur III dynasty, where the marriages of kings and
some governors were no longer monogamous. Although some rulers of the second
dynasty of Lagash ascended through the female line, they also had more than one wife,
but we do not know if the marriages were simultaneous. Kings of the Ur III dynasty
had several wives with different titles; many of their marriages were politically moti-
vated and they married their daughters to other potentates (for a detailed study, see
Weiershäuser 2008 ).
Prior to the “Laws of Ur-Namma” no law code is attested. Additionally, there are
numerous legal documents with information on women’s status and rights (see Lafont
and Westenholz 2003 ). Gudea of Lagash (c. 2125 – 2110 ) first gave daughters of families
without a son the right to inherit their father’s estate. In principle a daughter did not
inherit from her father but received a dowry and could otherwise acquire property.
Dowries included houses, slaves, personal property. Marital gifts from husbands
included land and slaves, sometimes estates, and some married women had their own
earnings with which they bought property. The husband probably controlled at least
part of his wife’s property, but she had sufficient control to conduct transactions.
In many circumstances, women had legal agency in litigation, as property owners,
as contracting parties, and as witnesses; they could own, sell, buy or make gifts of real
estate, slaves, or cattle. However, according to legal documents most women were, in
fact, dependent on their husband or father, but widows could become head of a
household and might have had the primary right to inherit their husband’s estate unless
his will stated otherwise (Owen 1981 : 175 ). This is attested in suits brought to court by
widows against their son or other relatives. Unfortunately, it is not clear whether a–– Women and agency ––