arrowheads in several graves suggest that whole bundles were deposited in a quiver
made of leather or wood.
Scandinavian arrowheads usually have an iron tang, whereas socketed arrowheads
appear to be more typical of the area south of Scandinavia (Kempke 1988 ). On the basis
of Swedish finds several types have been identified (Wegraeus 1973 , 1986 ). Most com-
mon is a lanceolate multipurpose type, but other forms are known, and during the
Viking Age points with a triangular or square cross-section especially suited for military
use were introduced.
Arrow-shafts and feathered flight-ends are rarely preserved. Evidence from the
Hedeby boat-chamber grave indicates that the shafts, in this case made of birchwood,
had been fitted not only with feathers but with cast copper-alloy nocks consisting of a
sub-conical base with a deep notch and tang (Müller-Wille 1976 : 80 – 6 ). It is often
difficult to determine whether arrows deposited in graves represent offensive weaponry
or rather were intended for hunting. The latter seems most likely for the bundle
from Hedeby which, with copper-alloy fittings, may well have been a gift of some value
(Wamers 1994 : 29 ).
DEFENSIVE WEAPONRYAccording to the older Gulathing and Frostathing laws every man on board a leding
ship was required to have a shield. Very few complete shields have survived, but remains
of originally sixty-four shields in the Gokstad ship-burial uncovered in Norway give an
impression of their size and construction (Nicolaysen 1882 : 62 ). The circular wooden
disc, at Gokstad 94 cm in diameter, was joined by thin wooden boards, and many were
probably fitted with an additional covering of leather (Arwidsson 1986 : 39 ). The hole
for the hand-grip at the centre of the shield was covered by an iron boss, usually one of
three main types distinguished by the shape of the dome, the neck and the flange for
attachment (see Rygh 1885 : nos 562 – 5 ). Other metal fittings for the shields include
rim-bindings, and occasionally also a metal grip instead of one of wood and sheet metal
or cast copper-alloy grip-mounts (Arwidsson 1986 : 40 – 3 ).
Shields could be distinguished by colour. An inscription on a Danish runestone from
Rønninge on Fyn speaks of the son of ‘Asgot of the red shield’ (Moltke 1976 : 313 ), and
the shields from Gokstad were painted in alternate colours, black and yellow, similar to
those depicted in the Bayeux tapestry (Nicolaysen 1882 : 63 ). Sagas and law texts
mention red and white, the latter possibly the natural colour of the wood but also
signifying peaceful intentions (Falk 1914 : 128 ), and according to the saga of Saint Olaf
King, gilt, red and blue crosses marked the white shields of the king’s men.
King Olaf’s men were also equipped with body armour. Images of Viking warriors
indicate that helmets were used, but archaeological finds, usually only metal fragments,
are extremely rare. Leather, a probable alternative to metal, has left no trace. The most
complete helmet, a simple iron cap fitted with eye-guards, was recovered from a richly
furnished cremation at Gjermundbu in Norway (Grieg 1947 : 3 – 4 ). Small rings at the
edge of the cap suggest that the neck was protected by a cover of chain mail.
Apart from the helmet, the Gjermundbu grave contained fragments of a chain-mail
shirt, and at Birka protective armour made of narrow metal plates has been identified
(Arbman 1939 : 63 ; Grieg 1947 : 4 ). Shirts made of thousands of iron rings welded
together or closed with a rivet were doubtless expensive and available only to the very
–– chapter 15 : Viking weaponry––