302 ChaPteR 8 Memory
components of a memory are probably stored at different sites,
with all of these sites participating in the representation of the
event as a whole.• Hormones released by the adrenal glands during stress or
emotional arousal, including epinephrine and norepinephrine,
enhance memory. But very high hormone levels can interfere
with the retention of information; a moderate level is optimal for
learning new tasks.
How We Remember
• Mnemonics can enhance retention, but for ordinary memory
tasks, complex memory tricks are often ineffective or even
counterproductive.
• To remember material well, we must encode it accurately in the
first place. Some kinds of information, such as material in a
college course, require effortful as opposed to automatic encod-
ing. Rehearsal of information keeps it in short-term memory
and increases the chances of long-term retention. Elaborative
rehearsal is more likely to result in transfer to long-term memory
than is maintenance rehearsal, and deep processing is usu-
ally a more effective retention strategy than shallow process-
ing. Retrieval practice is necessary if a memory is going to be
consolidated, and therefore be available for a long time. The
read-recite-review strategy and other effective study strategies
encourage active learning and produce better results than sim-
ply reading and rereading material.
Why We Forget
• Forgetting can occur for several reasons. Information in sensory
and short-term memory appears to decay if it does not receive
further processing. New information may erase and replace
old information in long-term memory. Proactive and retroactive
interference may take place. Cue-dependent forgetting may
occur when retrieval cues are inadequate. The most effective
retrieval cues are those that were present at the time of the ini-
tial experience. A person’s mental or physical state may also act
as a retrieval cue, evoking a state-dependent memory. We tend
to remember best those events that are congruent with our cur-
rent mood (mood-congruent memory).
• Amnesia, the partial or complete forgetting of important personal
information, usually occurs because of disease or injury to the
brain. Psychogenic amnesia, which involves a loss of personal
identity and has psychological causes, is rare. Traumatic amne-
sia, which allegedly involves the forgetting of specific traumatic
events for long periods of time, is highly controversial, as is
repression, the psychodynamic explanation of traumatic amne-
sia. Because these concepts lack good empirical support, psy-
chological scientists are skeptical about their validity and about
the accuracy of “recovered memories.” Critics argue that many
therapists, unaware of the power of suggestion and the dangers of
confabulation, have encouraged false memories of victimization.Autobiographical Memories
• Most people cannot recall any events from earlier than the age of- The reasons for such childhood amnesia include the immatu-
rity of certain brain structures, making it difficult for very young
children to focus attention, encode, and remember; cognitive
factors such as immature cognitive schemas, lack of linguistic
skills, and lack of a self-concept; and lack of knowledge of social
conventions for encoding and reporting events.
• A person’s narrative “life story” organizes the events of his or her
life and gives them meaning.
Psychology in the News, Revisited
• DNA evidence has exonerated many people who were falsely
convicted of rape, murder, and other crimes, making the public
more aware of the limitations of eyewitness testimony and the
fallibility of memory.Taking Psychology With You
• You can begin exploring your own personal narratives by recall-
ing what you consider to be your earliest memory; considering
how you would relate an embarrassing experience to different
audiences; thinking about whether your memories have been
consistent over time or have changed; comparing a memory of
an event with someone else’s memory of the same event; and
coming up with the “theme” of your life story.