bly be attributed to him, many of them of Roman Catholic
notables in the circle of Mary I. He was also a painter and
designer for court fêtes. His early allegorical picture of Sir
John Luttrell (1550; Coutauld Institute, London) shows
the influence of the FONTAINEBLEAUpainters; later paint-
ings are more reminiscent of Holbein and Clouet. His mas-
terpiece is the double portrait traditionally identified as
Frances Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk, and her second hus-
band and erstwhile secretary, Adrian Stokes (1559; private
collection); a more plausible theory is that they are Mary,
Baroness Dacre, and her son Gregory, 10th Baron Dacre.
exploration The Renaissance era was the heyday of ex-
ploration by European adventurers. During the 15th and
16th centuries, explorers from the leading European mer-
chant nations traversed all the major seas and plotted their
coastlines. Much of early Renaissance exploration was in-
spired by medieval tales of Prester John, the legendary
African Christian king with hoards of treasure, and by the
travels (1271–92) of Marco Polo, who reported on the
riches of the Orient.
Although individuals like Fernão PINTOand Matteo
RICCImade epic journeys by land, Renaissance explorers
were predominantly mariners, sponsored by monarchs
and merchants to establish trading links with Asia. The
Portuguese were the first great nation of explorers. Using
developments in navigational instruments and CARTOGRA-
PHY, they drew inspiration from the enthusiasm of Prince
HENRY THE NAVIGATOR. Although serious exploration
down the West African coast began in the early 15th cen-
tury, it was not until 1488 that DIAZrounded the Cape of
Good Hope and turned northeast along the African coast-
line. In the same year COVILHÃreached India via the “over-
land” route, although Vasco da GAMAdid not open up the
southern sea route to India until 1498.
By the mid-15th century the Spaniards had developed
an interest in exploration. In 1474 an Italian named Paolo
del Pozzo Toscanelli advocated sailing west to Asia—a
theory based on Ptolemy’s notions about the extent of the
Asian land mass. The Spaniards adopted this theory and
sponsored Christopher COLUMBUS, who made landfall
on the Caribbean islands in 1492, believing them to be
outposts of Asia. It was 20 years before the existence of
America as a separate continent was established and, con-
sequently, the intervening years saw an extensive search
for a strait through America to the Orient. This meant that
the east coast of America was extensively mapped within
10 years, as various explorers searched for the supposed
passage north or south from the Caribbean. The first atlas
of the Americas was produced by Cornelis Wytfliet in
1597.
Although the treaty of TORDESILLAS(1494) gave both
Spain and Portugal spheres of influence in the Caribbean,
the Spanish made best use of their opportunities, while
the Portuguese continued to favor eastern routes to Asia.
By 1519 Spain had established Panama as a base for in-
cursions into the South American mainland. Rapid colo-
nization followed, and with it came riches beyond the
wildest dreams of the explorers (see PIZARRO, FRANCISCO).
Based on Hispaniola in the Caribbean, the Spaniards were
well placed to explore the new continent. Juan Díaz de
Solis discovered the Rio de la Plata in 1516, and CABRAL
discovered the delta of the Amazon, which was navigated
by Francisco de Orellana in 1542. By 1600 coastal map-
ping of South America was complete.
In 1521 Magellan’s lieutenant del CANOachieved the
first circumnavigation of the globe after Magellan had per-
sisted with a southerly course down the coast of South
America until he passed through the strait that bears his
name. As exploration became global, England, Holland,
and France slowly adopted increasingly active exploration
policies. Although Sebastian CABOTand Jacques CARTIER
made pioneering attempts to find a direct route to the Ori-
ent by searching for a NORTHWEST PASSAGE, it was not until
the late 16th century that men such as LINSCHOTENand
HAKLUYTinspired widespread northern European interest
in exploration. France and Holland undertook trading
ventures in the Far East, while Hakluyt’s Principall Navi-
gations ignited exploration fever in England. The 1550s
had seen England’s initial search for a NORTHEAST PASSAGE
and the establishment of valuable trade links with Russia
(see MUSCOVY COMPANY). Between 1576 and 1578 Francis
DRAKEretraced Magellan’s famous voyage. He confirmed
that the Atlantic and Pacific oceans met and explored the
southern Pacific and the west coast of America. By the end
of the Renaissance period, the explorers of the age had
sailed and charted most of the world except for its farthest
extremities and “the Great Southern Continent” (Aus-
tralia).
Further reading: Peter T. Bradley, The Lure of Peru:
Maritime Intrusion into the South Sea, 1598–1701 (London:
Macmillan and New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989); John
H. Elliott, The Old World and the New, 1492–1650 (Cam-
bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1970; new ed.
1992); John R. Hale, Renaissance Exploration (London:
BBC, 1968; New York, 1972); Angus Konstam, A Histori-
cal Atlas of Exploration (New York: Checkmark, 2000);
Kenneth Nebenzahl, Atlas of Columbus and the Great Dis-
coveries (Chicago, Ill.: Rand McNally, 1990), as Maps from
the Age of Discovery: Columbus to Mercator(London: Times
Books, 1990); John H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance:
Discovery, Exploration and Settlement, 1450–1650 (Cleve-
land, Ohio: World and London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson,
1963; new ed. London: Phoenix, 2000); Boies Penrose,
Travel and Discovery in the Renaissance (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 2nd ed. 1955); Günter Schilder,
Australia Unveiled: The Share of the Dutch Navigators in the
Discovery of Australia (Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Ter-
rarum, 1976).117700 eexxpplloorraattiioonn